Chapter-two

Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engine

Content
 Introduction
 AirStandard Cycle
◦ Carnot Cycle
◦ Otto Cycle
◦ Diesel Cycle
◦ Dual Cycle
◦ Compression of Otto, Diesel &
Dual
 Fuel-Air Cycle
 Actual Cycle
 Introduction
 The three steps of Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engines are
◦ Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
 Idealized processes
 Idealize working Fluid
◦ Fuel-Air Cycle
 Idealized Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
◦ Actual Engine Cycle
 Accurate Models of Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
 Air Standard Cycle
 The operating cycle of an IC engine can be broken down into a
sequence of separate processes
◦ Intake, Compression, Combustion, Expansion and Exhaust.
 Actual IC Engine does not operate on a thermodynamic cycle are
operated on open cycle.
 The accurate analysis of IC engine processes is very complicated.
In order to understand them it is advantageous to analyze the
performance of an Idealized closed cycle
 Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary
analyses of IC engine cycles
Air-Standard Cycle Assumptions

 Simplifications to the real cycle include:

◦ Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
◦ Combustion process not considered
◦ Intake and exhaust processes not considered (There is Heat
addition and heat rejection source and Sink)
◦ There is no heat losses from the system to the surrounding
◦ Engine friction and heat losses not considered
◦ All the processes that constitute the cycle are reversal
◦ Specific heats independent of temperature
 For Air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K Cv = 0.717kJ/kgK , γ = 1.4 M
= 29kg/kmol
CARNOT CYCLE
 Sadi Carnot, a French engineer, P 1
proposed a reversible cycle in 1824, absorbs
heat
 the working medium receives heat
2
at a higher temperature and rejects
heat at a lower temperature TH
4 3 TC
rejects heat
V
1–2 isothermal heat addition (in contact S
3 2
with TH)

contained in gas
2–3 isentropic expansion to TC

entropy
3–4 isothermal heat rejection (in contact
with TC) 4 1
4–1 isentropic compression to TH
(isentropic  adiabatic+quasistatic) TC TH T
 CARNOT CYCLE CONT.
 The areas under the process curves on
◦ the P-v diagram represent the work done for closed systems.
(W net)
◦ T-s diagram represent the heat transfer for the processes.
(Q net)
◦ W net = Qnet b/c  dU  0   TdS   PdV
W   Q1 2  Q3 4   TH ( S 2  S 1 )  TL ( S 3  S 4 ) 
 Carnot   net       
 Qin   Q1 2   TH ( S 2  S 1 ) 
 TH  TL  T 
 Carnot     1   L 
 TH   TH 
CARNOT CYCLE CONT.
 We often use the Carnot efficiency as a means to think
about ways to improve the cycle efficiency of other cycles.
 One of the observations about the efficiency of both ideal
and actual cycles comes from the Carnot efficiency:
 Thermal efficiency increases
◦ with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied
to the system or
◦ with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected

from the system.

OTTO CYCLE
 The main drawback of the Carnot cycle is its
impracticability due to high pressure and high volume
ratios employed with comparatively low mean effective
pressure.
 Nicolaus Otto (1876), proposed a constant-volume heat
addition cycle which forms the basis for the working of
today's spark-ignition engines.
 It consists of
◦ Two Constant Volume Processes

◦ Two Isentropic Processes

 1-2 Isentropic
OTTO CYCLE CONT. compression
2-3 Constant volume

heat addition
3-4 Isentropic
expansion
4-1 Constant volume
heat rejection
 OTTO CYCLE CONT.
 Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout

 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin

Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Qnet , 23  U 23
Thus, for constant specific heats,
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
OTTO CYCLE CONT.
Similarly apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )

The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout (T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1  th , Otto  1
Qin (T3  T2 )
mCv (T4  T1 ) T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1  1
mCv (T3  T2 ) T2 (T3 / T2  1)
OTTO CYCLE CONT.
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 T3

T1 T4
or
T4 T3

T1 T2

Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we see that

T2 T3 T
T2 T
T3
 
2 3

T1 
T4

T1 T4 or T1 T4

or
T
T
4

1

or
T4
T
T
3

T3
Is this the same as the Carnot

T4
T1

T3
T2
T1 T2
cycle efficiency?
(T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
(T3  T2 )
T1
T1 (T4 / T1  1)  th , Otto  1
 1 T2
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
 OTTO CYCLE CONT.
Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

This looks like the Carnot efficiency, but it

is not! T1 and T2 are not constant.

Where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1 What are the limitations for

 th , Otto  1  this expression?
r k 1
 OTTO CYCLE CONT.
 Differences between Otto and Carnot cycles
 Thislooks like the Carnot efficiency, but it is not! T1
and T2 are not constant.
T
2 3

1 3

s
OTTO CYCLE CONT.
 Spark ignition engine compression ratio limited by
◦ T3 (Auto ignition)
◦ P3 (material strength),
 For r = 8 the efficiency is 56%
 Cylinder temperatures vary between 300K and 2000K so
1.2 < k < 1.4
◦ k = 1.3 most representative

.
 OTTO CYCLE CONT.
Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
 The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by
either:
3’
◦ i) Increasing the r (1’2) P ’
◦ ii) Increase Qin (23”) 3 (ii)
4’
Qin ’
Wcycle 4
WcycleQin  r  4
imep    th 2 (i) ’
V1  V2 V1  r  1 
1
 V2  1
V1  V2  V1 
 1  

 V1  ’
V2 V1
R0 T1 Q2 3
p1m
 1
 V1 1   V1  M MR0T1
 r
m p1 mep  
1
1
r
 OTTO CYCLE CONT.
 Non-dimensionalizing mep with p1 we get

  R0
mep  1   Q m 
  cv   1
p1 1   R0 T1  m
1  
 r

mep Q 1 Determine the relation for


p1 cvT1  1 mep/p3
1    1
 r mep mep 1 1

p3 p1 r  Q
Mep/p1 is a function of  1
1
cvT1r
heat added, initial temperature,
compression ratio properties of air, namely, cv and γ
Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
 In actual spark-ignition engines, the upper limit of compression
ratio is limited by the self-ignition temperature of the fuel.
 This limitation on the compression ratio can be circumvented if
air and fuel are compressed separately and brought together at the
time of combustion.
 In such an arrangement fuel can be injected into the cylinder
which contains compressed air at a higher temperature than the
self-ignition temperature of the fuel.
 Such engines work on heavy liquid fuels. These engines are called
compression-ignition engines and they work on a ideal cycle
known as Diesel cycle
Diesel Cycle
 The difference between Otto and Diesel
cycles is in the process of heat addition.
In Otto cycle the heat addition takes place
at constant volume whereas in the Diesel
cycle it is at constant pressure
 1-2 Isentropic Compression
 2-3 Con Pre. Heat Addition
 3-4 Isentropic Expansion
 4-1 Con Vol. Heat Rejection
 Diesel Cycle Cont.
Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle
Wnet Qout
 th , Diesel   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR (T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p (T3  T2 )
 Diesel Cycle Cont.
Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant (just as we did for
the Otto cycle)

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Diesel  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 )
 Diesel Cycle Cont.
Cv (T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1
C p (T3  T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)
PV PV
3 3
 2 2 where P3  P2
What is T3/T2 ?
T3 T2
T3 V3
  rc
T2 V2

where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of

the duration of the heat addition at constant pressure.

Since the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be
related to the number of degrees that the crank rotated during the fuel
injection into the cylinder.
 Diesel Cycle Cont.
PV PV
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
What is T4/T1 ?
T4 P4

T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

PV  PV
1 1
k
2 2
k
and PV  PV 4 4
k
3 3
k

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation
and obtain
 Diesel Cycle Cont.
Therefore, The Thermal Efficiency is

1 T1 ( T4 / T1  1)
 th , Diesel  1
k T2 ( T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 r  1 k
 Diesel

 1  k 1  

1  1 rck  1 
 1  
c
k T2 ( rc  1) const cV r  k rc  1 

1 rck  1
 1
r k 1 k ( rc  1)
Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than unity so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficienc
than the Otto cycle

Note: CI needs higher r compared to SI to ignite fuel

Diesel Cycle Cont.
 What happens as rc goes to 1? Sketch the P-v diagram for the Diesel
cycle and show rc approaching 1 in the limit.

When rc > 1 for a fixed r,  th , Diesel.   th , Otto

But, since rDiesel  rOtto .  th , Diesel   th , Otto

 Diesel Cycle Cont.
Thermal Efficiency
Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle,
Qin,  run engine at higher speed to get the same power.

k  1  Qin  1
rc  1    k 1
k  P1V1  r Typical CI Engin
15 < r < 20

as Qin 0, rc=v3/v21

The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:
Diesel Cycle Cont.
 We can write the mep formula for the diesel cycle like that for the
Otto cycle in terms of the η, Q’, γ, cv and T1:

mep Q 1

p1 cvT1  1 
1  r   1

 We can write the mep in terms of γ, r and rc:


mep  r  rc  1  r rc  1


p1 r  1  1
mep mep  1 
 The expression for mep/p3 is   
p3 p1  r 
Dual Cycle
 In the Otto cycle, combustion is assumed at constant volume while in
Diesel cycle combustion is at constant pressure
 In practice they are far from real.
◦ Since, some time interval is required for the chemical
reactions during combustion process, the combustion cannot
take place at constant volume.
◦ Similarly, due to rapid uncontrolled combustion in diesel
engines, combustion does not occur at constant pressure.
 The Dual cycle, also called a mixed cycle or limited
pressure cycle, is a compromise between Otto and Diesel
cycles.
 Dual Cycle Cont.

1  2 Isentropic compression
2  3 Constant volume heat addition
3  4 Constant pressure heat addition
4  5 Isentropic expansion
5  1 Constant volume heat rejection

 Wnet   Qin  Qout 

 Dual       
 Qin   Qin 
 mCV (T3  T2 )  mC p (T4  T3 )  mCV (T5  T1 ) 
 
 mCV (T3  T2 )  mC p (T4  T3 ) 
 
1  rp rc  1 
  1   1   Where rp=p3/p2
r r
 p  1   r r
p c  1 
Pressure Ratio
Dual Cycle Cont.
To obtain the mep in terms of the cut-off and pressure ratios we have the
following expression

mep

 rp r 
rc  1  r 
rp  1  r rp c 1
r 

p1 r  1  1
the expression for mep/p3

mep mep  p1 
  
p3 p1  p3 
Dual Cycle Cont.

We can write an expression for rp the pressure ratio in terms

of the peak pressure which is a known quantity:

p3  1 
rp    
p1  r 
We can obtain an expression for rc in terms of Q’ and rp and
other known quantities as follows:

1   Q  1  
rc         1
   cvT1r   1  rp  

Dual Cycle Cont.
 We can also obtain an expression for rp in terms of Q’ and rc and other
known quantities as follows:

 Q 
 c T r   1  1
rp   v 1 
1   rc  
Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 The important variable factors which are used as the basis for
comparison of the cycles are
◦ compression ratio,
◦ peak pressure,
◦ heat addition,
◦ heat rejection and
◦ the net work
 a comparison of these three cycles is made for the
◦ same compression ratio,
◦ same heat addition,
◦ constant maximum pressure and temperature,
◦ same heat rejection and net work output
Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles Cont.

Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition

All the cycles start from the same initial

state point 1 and the air is compressed from  Otto   Dual   Diesel
state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same
 Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles Cont.
Compression Combustion Expansion
Blowdown Intake Otto Exhaust
Close T-s cycle 1 2
3 4 5
6 Equal areas 7
1200
Temperature (K)

T-s diagram
Diesel o rk
oowrk
1000
tt
Ol w
i e s e
800
D
600

400
Otto heat
Diesel input
heat input
200

0
-200 0 200 400 600 800
Entropy (J/kg-K)
Otto vs. Diesel cycle (animation)

 Otto clearly has higher th - every Carnot strip has same TL for both cycles, but every Otto
strip has higher TH
 Unlike Otto cycle,  for Diesel cannot be determined by inspection of the T - s diagram since
Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles Cont.

 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection

heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than that of the Diesel
cycle. Hence, it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is
greater
Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles Cont.

 Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection

 Diesel   Otto
Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles Cont.

 Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input

 Diesel   Otto

the heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than the heat rejected in Diesel
cycle, Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle
Comparison of Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles Cont.

Same Maximum Pressure & work Output

For same work output, the'

entropy at 3 should be greater
than entropy at 3'.

It is clear that the heat rejection

for Otto cycle is more than that
of Diesel cycle.

Hence, for these conditions the

Diesel cycle is more efficient
than the Otto cycle.
 Examples
A gas engine operating on the ideal Otto cycle has a
compression ratio of 6:1. The pressure and
temperature at the commencement of compression
are 1 bar and 27 oC. The heat added during the
constant volume combustion processes is 1170 kJ/
kg. Determine the peak pressure and temperature,
work out put per kg of air and air standard
efficiency. Assume Cv=0.717 kJ/kg K and γ=1.4 for
air
Solution
Given Data
Operating Cycle
◦ Otto Cycle
Compression Ratio
◦ 6:1
At Point ‘1’
◦ P1=1 bar, T1=27oC
Required Values
Heat added • Peak Pressure (p3)

◦ Q2-3=1170 kJ/kg • Peak Temperature (T3)

• work out put per kg of air
• Efficiency
 Solution
Consider pro 1-2
P2
 r  6 1.4  12.3
P1
P2  12.3  1 bar   12.3 bar
T2  V1   1
 
V    r  6 0.4  2.05
T1
T2
 design project gear box
2 

 2.05  300   615 K  342 o C

1800rpm and 7kw parallel
P2
 r  6 
connection
1.4
 12.3
P1
P2  12.3  1bar   12.3 bar
T2  V1 
 
 
  r  1  6 0.4  2.05
T1  V2 
T2  2.05  300   615 K  342 o C
 Solution
Consider the Pro 2-3
◦ For Unit mass flow
q s  q 23  C v T3  T2   1170 kJ
kg
 q   1170 
T3  T2   23      1631.8
 CV   0.717 
T3  1631.6  615  2246.8 K  1973.8 oC

P3  T3   2246.8 
       3.65
P2  T2   615 
P3  3.65  12.3  10 5   44.8  10 5 N 2  44.8 bar
m
 Solution
Work output
= Area of the p-v diagram
=Area under (3-4) – Area under (2-1)
 P V  P4V4   P2V2  P1V1   RT3  RT4   RT2  RT1 
  3 3          
  1    1    1    1 
 R 
  T3  T4   T2  T1 
  1
R  C P  CV   1.004  0.717   0.287 kJ
kg K
 1
T3  V3 
    r  1  6 0.4  2.048
T4  V4 
 T   2246.8 
T4   3      1097.1 K
 2.048   2.048 
Solution
Work output/kg
 0.287 
  2246.8  1097.1  615  300 
 0 .4 
 598.9 kJ

 Otto  1     1 
1
  1   1   0.4   0.5116
r  6 
 51.16 %

Efficiency  0.287 
  2246.8  1097.1  615  300 
 0.4 
 598.9 kJ

 Otto  1     1 
1
  1   1   0.4   0.5116
r  6 
 51.16 %
Example-2
 Determine the ideal efficiency of the diesel engine
having a cylinder with bore 250 mm, stroke 375 mm
and a clearance volume of 1500 cc, with fuel cut-off
occurring at 5 % of the the stroke. Assume γ=1.4 for air
 Given Data
◦ Bore Dia b=250 mm
◦ Stroke length s=375 mm
◦ Clearance Volume Vc=1500 cc

◦ Cut-off (V3-V2)= 0.05 (Vs)

 Solution
To determine Compression ratio
   
Vs   b 2 S   25 2  37.5  18407.8 cc
4 4
 Vs   18407.8 
r  1    1    13.27
 Vc   1500 
To determine Cut-off ratio
 V3 
Cut  off ratio  rc  
V    V3 
Cut  off ratio  rc  
V 
 2   2 

Cut  off Volume  V3  V2   0.05V s  Cut  off Volume  V3  V2   0.05Vs 
 0.05  12.27 Vc   0.05  12.27 Vc 
 0.6135Vc  0.6135Vc
V 2  Vc V2  Vc
V3  Vc  0.6135(Vc )  1.6135(Vc )
V3  Vc  0.6135(Vc )  1.6135(Vc )
 V3   1.6135Vc 
 V3   1.6135Vc  rc  
V   
  
  1.6135
rc  
V   
 
  1.6135  2   Vc 
 2   Vc  
 1   rc  1   1  1.61351.4  1 
 Diesel  1    1     1  0.4   
   rc  1  1.4  1.6135  1

  rc  1    1.6135 1 
1.4
 Diesel  1   
1 1 r  13.27
    1  0.4   
   rc  1  1.4  1.6135  1
 1
r  13.27  0.60502
 0.60502  60.52 %

 60.52 %
 Solution
To determine efficiency
 V3 
Cut  off ratio  rc  
V 

 2 
Cut  off Volume  V3  V 2   0.05V s 
 0.05  12.27 Vc 
 0.6135Vc
V2  Vc
V3  Vc  0.6135(Vc )  1.6135(Vc )
 V3   1.6135Vc 
rc  
V   
  Vc

  1.6135
 2   
 1  rc  1   1  1.61351.4  1 
 Diesel  1   1     1   
   rc  1  1.4  1.6135  1
0.4
 r  13.27
 0.60502
 60.52 %
Fuel-Air Cycle
◦ The theoretical cycle based on the actual
properties of the cylinder contents is called the
fuel–air cycle.
 The fuel–air cycle take into consideration the
following:
1. The actual composition of the cylinder contents.
2. The variation in the specific heat of the gases in the
cylinder.
3. The dissociation effect.
4. The variation in the number of moles present in the
cylinder as the pressure and temperature change.
5. Compression & expansion processes are
frictionless
6. No chemical changes in either fuel or air prior to
combustion.
7. Combustion takes place instantaneously at top
dead center.
8. All processes are adiabatic.
9. The fuel is mixed well with air.
10. Subsequent to combustion, the change is
always in chemical equilibrium.
Composition of Cylinder Gases
Composition of Cylinder Gases Cont.
Variable Specific Heats
Variable Specific Heats Cont.
Loss Due to Variable Specific Heats
Loss Due to Variable Specific Heats Cont.
For the expansion Process
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles Cont.
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles Cont.
Effect of Operating variables
Effect of Compression Ratio
Effect of Compression Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
Actual Engine cycle
Introduction
◦ Air-Standard Cycle Analys is gives an estimate
of engine performance which is much greater
than the actual performance, For Example for SI
 The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the
fuel-air cycles and air-standard cycles in many
respects.
 The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the
air-standard efficiency due to various losses
occurring in the actual engine operation.
 The major losses are due to:
◦ Variation of specific heats with temperature
◦ Dissociation of the combustion products
◦ Progressive combustion
◦ Incomplete combustion of fuel
◦ Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
◦ Blowdown at the end of the exhaust process
◦ Gas exchange process
Comparison Of Air-standard And Actual Cycles
Comparison Of Fuel-Air Cycle And Actual Cycles
The Major Loss of Actual Cycle
Time Loss Factor
Time Loss Factor
End of Chapter-two