Ain Shams University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Engineering Department

MEP 620

FLUID MECHANICS / 2

INFORMATION SHEET # 2

Spring, 2022
 Chapter – 2 –
BASIC HYDRAULIC CONCEPTS

1. WATER HAMMER PHENOMENA

A sudden change of flow rate in a large pipeline (due to valve closure, pump turnoff, etc.) may involve a great
mass of water moving within the pipe walls . The force resulting from changing the speed of the water mass may
cause a pressure rise in the pipe with a magnitude several times greater than the normal static pressure in the
pipe. This phenomenon is commonly known as the water hammer phenomenon. The excessive pressure may
fracture the pipe walls or cause other damage to the pipeline system. The possible occurrence of such pressure,
its magnitude, and the propagation of the pressure wave form must be carefully investigated in connection with
the pipeline design.
The sudden change of pressure due to a valve closure may be viewed as the result of the force developed in the
pipe necessary to stop the flowing water column. The column has a total mass M and is changing its velocity at
the rate of dV/dt. According to Newton’s second law of motion,
F = m dV/dt ( 1)

If the velocity of the entire water column could be reduced to zero instantly, the above equation would become

The resulting force (hence, pressure) would be infinite. Fortunately, such an instantaneous change is almost
impossible because a mechanical valve requires a certain amount of time to complete a closure operation. In
addition, neither the pipe walls nor the water column involved are perfectly rigid under large pressure. The
elasticities of both the pipe walls ad the water column play very important roles in the water hammer
phenomenon.
Consider a pipe length L with inside diameter D, wall thickness t, and the modulus of elasticity E p. Immediately
following the valve closure, the water in close proximity to the valve is brought to rest, and its kinetic energy
head, V2/2g , is transformed to pressure energy head, P/y, and causes a local pressure increase. As a result of this
pressure increase, the water column in this section is somewhat compressed, and the pipe walls also expand
slightly due to the corresponding increase of stress in the walls. Both of these phenomena help provide a little
extra volume, allowing water to enter the section continuously until it comes to a complete stop.
The next section immediately upstream is involved in the same procedure an instant later. In this manner, a wave
of increased pressure propagates up the pipe toward the reservoir, the entire pipe is expanded and the water
column within is compressed by the increased pressure. At this very instant the entire water column within the
pipe comes to a complete halt.
Obviously, this transient state cannot be maintained because the pressure in the pipe is much higher than the
pressure in the open reservoir.
The halted water in the pipe begins to flow back into the reservoir as soon as the pressure wave reaches the
reservoir. This process starts at the reservoir end of the pipe and a decreased pressure wave travels downstream
toward the valve, as shown in Figure 1 (d). During this period the water behind the wave front moves in the
upstream direction as the pipe continuously contracts and the column decompresses. The time required for the
pressure wave to return to the valve is 2L/C, where C is the speed of the wave travel along the pipe. It is also
known as celerity.
The speed of pressure wave travel in a pipe depends on the modulus of elasticity of water E b , and the modulus of
elasticity of the pipe wall material E p . The relationship may be expressed as

(2)

Where Ec is the composite modulus of elasticity of the water pipe system and ρ is the density of water.
Figure (1). Propagation of water hammer pressure waves (friction in pipe neglected). (a)Steady-state condition
previous to valve movement. (b) Transient conditions at t > L/C. (c)Transient conditions at t = L/C (d) Transient
conditions at L/C > t > 2L/C. (e) Transient conditions at t = 2L/C. (f) Transient conditions at 2 L/C < t < 2 L/C. (g)
Transient conditions at t = 3L/C. (h) Transient conditions at 4L/C > t > 3 L/C. (i) Transient conditions at t = 4 L/C.
Notes: After t = 4L/C the cycle repeats and continues indefinitely if the friction in the pipe is zero . The symbol
or is used to denote the reflection of the wave front.

Page 3
Ec is composed of the elasticity of the pipe walls and the elasticity of the fluid within. It may be calculated by the
following relationship:

(3)

The modules of elasticity of water, E b , and the density of water are given in Chapter 1. The modulus of elasticity of
various common pipe of materials is listed in Table 1 , k is a constant depending upon the method of pipeline

Table 1 Modulus of Elasticity, E p , of Common Pipe Material

Pipe Material Ep (dyn/cm2)* (psi)

Aluminum 7 . 1011 20 . 106

Brass, Bronze 9 . 1011 13 . 106

Cast-iron, gray 11 . 1011 16 . 106

Cast-iron, mallcable 16 . 1011 23 . 106

Concrete, reinforced 16 . 1011 25 . 106

Glass 7. 1011 10 . 106

Lead 31 . 108 4.5 . 104

Lucite 28 . 108 4 . 104

Copper 97 . 1010 14 . 106

Rubber, vulcanized 14 . 1010 2 . 106

Steel 19 . 1011 28 . 106

* dyn/cm2 x 10 – 1 = N/m2
As mentioned previously, the closure of a valve usually required as a certain period of time t to complete. If t is less
than 2L/C or if the valve closure is completed before the first pressure wave could return to the valve, the resulting
rise in pressure should be the same as if the valve had an instantaneous closure. However, If t is greater than 2L/C,
then the first pressure wave returns to the valve before the valve is completely closed. The returned negative
pressure wave compensates the pressure rise resulting from the final closure of the valve.
The maximum pressure created by the water hammer phenomenon may be calculated. The formulas for water
hammer pressure are derived as follows.
Consider a pipe with a rapidly closing valve (t ≤ 2L/C). The extra volume of water Δ Vol that enters the pipe during
the first period ( t = - L/C) [Figure 1 (c) is

(4)

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where V0 is initial velocity of water flowing in the pipe and A is the pipe cross-sectional area. The increased
pressure ΔP is related to this extra volume by

(5)

where Vol is the original volume of the water column in the pipe and E c is the combined modulus of elasticity, as
defined by Eq. (5). Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (5), we may write

(6)

As the pressure wave propagates upstream along the pipe at speed C, the water behind the wave front is
immediately brought to a top from the initial velocity of V 0 , The total mass of water involved in this sudden
change of speed from V0 to zero in time Δt is m = ρ . AC . Δt. Applying Newton’s second law to this mass, we have

or

Substituting the above value of C into Eq. (6), we have

or

(7)

Which is the pressure head caused by the water hammer. The formula is applicable to rapid valve movement
(t ≤ 2L/C).

For closure time t > 2L/C, Δ P will not develop fully because the reflected negative wave arriving at the valve will
compensate for the pressure rise. For such slow valve closures, the maximum water hammer pressure may be
calculated by the Allievi formula.*
Applying the water hammer formula to pipe flow problems, we shall first determine the energy steady flow
conditions, as shown in Figure (2).

Page 5
 Figure 2. Water hammer pressure on a pipeline

* L. Allievi , The Theory of Water Hammer (translated by E.E. Halmos), ASME, 1929.
The maximum water hammer pressure calculated by the Allievi formula is

(8)

Where P0 is the static-state pressure in the pipe, and

(9)

The total plate pressure experienced by the pipe is

The steady-state pressure head at any point X along the pipeline is represented by p o/ Ɣ , which is the vertical
distance between the point and the hydraulic gradient line; and the velocity head, V 02 /2 , is the vertical distance
between the energy gradient line and the hydraulic gradient line. When the peak water hammer pressure wave
finally arrives at P, the water velocity behind the wave front becomes zero; hence, all the energy stored in this
section of the pipe is in the form of pressure energy. The pressure head experienced by the pipe at point P is the
total height of the water column PS. The following example illustrates this point.

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Example (1)

A steel pipe 1500 m long laid on a uniform slope a 0.5-m diameter and a 5-cm wall thickness. The pipe carries water
from a reservoir and discharges it into the air at an elevation 50 m below the reservoir free surface. A valve installed
at the downstream end of the pipe allows a flow rate of 0.8 m 3/s. If the valve is completely closed in 1.4 s, calculate
the maximum water hammer pressure at the valve end.; a) Neglect longitudinal stresses, b) If the pipe is fitted
with an expansion joint where k = 0.25 , c) if the valve closes in 5 seconds

Solution

From Eq. (2 )

( 1/ Ec ) = [ ( 1/Eb ) + { D k / (Ep t ) } ]

where Eb = 2.17.109 N/m2 , and Ep = 1.9.1011 N/m2 , as shown in Table 1.5 .

a) For pipes with no longitudinal stress, K = 1 , the above equation may thus be written as :

From Eq. (2) we have the speed of wave propagation along the pipe:

The time required for the wave travel to return to the valve and back , t is :

Since the valve closure time t c = 1.4 s which is less than the time of wave travel ( 2.17 s ). Thus the case is an
instantaneous valve closure, i.e.

H=Vc/g

Steady flow velocity V = 0.8 / ( π x0.5x0.5/4 ) = 1.28 m/s

H = 1.28 x 1378 / 9.8 = 180 m H2 O

inertia pressure rise = 1.76 MPa

b) With an expansion joint ( k = 0.25 )

1/ Ec = 1/ (2.17 x 109 ) + [ 0.25 x 0.5/ ( 1.9 x10 11 x 0.05 ) ]

Ec = 1.97 x 109 Pa, c = 1403 m/s

H = 183 m H2 O
Inertia pressure rise = 1.79 MPa

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c) When the valve closes in 5 seconds , i.e greater than wave travel time ( 2.17 s ), use Allievi formula;
Po =50 x 9.8 = 490 kPa
Press rise = po [ ( N /2) + ( N2 /4) + N ]½
Where N = ( ρ l Vo / po t )2 = [ 1000x 1500x2.17 /( 490 x 5 ) ] 2 = 1.76 x 106
Pipe pressure = steady pressure + pressure rise
Presssure rise = 490 [ (1.76 x 10 6/2) + (1.76 x 106/4) + 1.76 x 106 ] ½ = 0,49 kPa
Pipe pressure = 490 + 0.49 = 490.49
N.B. Compare resulting pipe pressures in cases a ( 1760 kPa) , b ( 1790 kPa) and c (490.49 kPa)

In water hammer analysis the time history of pressure oscillation in the pipeline is determined. Because of the
friction between the oscillatory water mass and the pipe wall, the pressure-time pattern is modified, and the
oscillation gradually dies out. A typical pressure oscillation is shown in Figure 3.
In realty, a valve cannot be closed completely in zero time. The time required for closure of a valve is a certain
period, tc. The water hammer pressure increases gradually with the rate of closure of the valve. A typical valve
closure curve is shown in Figure 4

Figure 3 . Typical valve closure curve.

Figure 4. Typical valve closure curve

If tc is smaller than the time required for the wave front to make a round trip along the pipeline and return to the
valve site (tc < 2L/C), the operation is defined as rapid closure.
The shock pressure will reach its maximum value. The computation of a quick closure operation is the same as
that of an instantaneous closure.
For slow closure operation, however tc > 2L/C , the pressure wave returns to the valve site before the closure is
completed.
A certain amount of water continuously passes through the valve when the pressure wave returns. As a result,
the pressure wave pattern will be altered.
A complete treatment of the water hammer phenomenon, with consideration of friction and slow valve closure
operation, may be found elsewhere.*

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 INERTIA PRESSURE NOMOGRAME

Example :For a pipe length of 100 m, water flow velocity of 1 m/s. Calculate the inertia pressure for value closure times of:
i)0.03s ii) 2s ( Answer: i) 57 bar. Ii) 1 bar )

Note :1psi = 6.895 kPa . 1 ft =0.3048 m

Page 9
 WATER HAMMER PROTECTION

Method Required range Remarks

Protection of variables
(In approximate
Order of increasing cost)

Inertia of pump MN2 > 0.01 Approximate only

wALH 2
0

Surge Tank h small Pipeline should be near

hydraulic grade line so
height of tank is practical

Pump by pass reflux valve avo >> 1 Some water may also be
gH0 drawn through pump

In-line reflux valve av0 >1 Normally used in

conjunction
gH0 with some other method of
pro-
tection . Water column
separation possible

Hydraulic actuator avo << 1 Pipeline profile should be

gH0 convex downwards.
Water column separation
likely
2L < 5 secs
a

Air vessel av0 >1 Pipeline profile preferably

gHo convex downwards.

Discharge tanks avo >1 H0 = pressure head at tank.

gH0 Pipeline profile should be
convex upwards
Where:
M = mass of moving parts N = rotating speed
L = pipe length
a = speed of sound V o = initial pipe velocity
Ho = initial pressure head

Page 10
1- Pipeline profile illustrating suitable locations for various devices for water hammer protection methods

2- Pump with bypass reflux valve

3- Water hammer release valve arrangement with simplified hydraulic actuator.

Page 11
 4 - Air Vessel

5 – Discharge Tank
2) - CAVITATION IN PUMPS AND TURBINES

Cavitation is the name given to a phenomenon which consists, basically, of local vaporization of a liquid.
When the absolute pressure falls to a value equal to or lower than the vapour pressure of the liquid at the
given temperature, small bubbles of vapour are formed and boiling occurs. Since liquids normally have air
dissolved in them, the lowering of pressure to a value near to the vapour pressure releases this air first.
The combination of air release and vaporization is known as cavitation. In practice, cavitation starts at
pressures somewhat higher than the vapour pressure of the liquid. The actual mechanism of cavitation
inception is not yet known, but it appears to be associated with the existence of microscopic gas nuclei
which cause cavitation. One theory suggests that these nuclei are present of these nuclei that a fluid cannot
withstand tension. It is estimated that, in their absence, a tension of 10 000 atm could be transmitted by
water. The nuclei give rise to the formation of bubbles during cavitation inception. These bubbles grow and
collapse, producing pressure waves of high intensity, only to be followed by the formation of successive
bubbles. Each cycle lasts only a few milliseconds, but the local pressures are enormous (maybe up to 4000
atm). Similarly, local temperatures may increase by as much as 800C.
The occurrence of cavitation is accompanied by a crackling noise and weak emission of light.
In a flowing system, the liquid may be subjected to changes in velocity and, consequently, changes in
pressure. When the velocity increases, the pressure falls and, if it falls to a sufficiently low level, cavitation
may occur. The bubbles may subsequently flow with the fluid into the higher pressure, where they
collapse.
Thus, cavitation are noise, erosion of metal surfaces and the vibration of the system.
The most general and very useful cavitation parameter is the cavitation coefficient, , defined as

 = (p1 – pc)/ ½ ύ21 (1)

Where P1 = upstream or ambient static pressure, pc = critical pressure at which cavitation occurs (usually
taken as vapour pressure), and ύ1 = mean upstream fluid velocity.
The value of  at which cavitation starts is called the critical cavitation coefficient crit and is referred to as
the inception point. Theoretically, cavitation starts when the pressure falls to the value of the vapour
pressure of the liquid, but the latter is a function of temperature. Thus, a system which will operate
satisfactory without cavitation during winter may give cavitation trouble in the summer when the
temperature is higher and, therefore, the vapour pressure of the liquid is also higher. Figure (1) gives the
values of vapour pressure of water as a function of temperature.

Page I Figure 1- Variation of water vapour pressure with

temperature
In pumps, cavitation occurs at the pump inlet, where the pressure is lowest, as demonstrated in Fig. 2, which
shows the hydraulic gradient for a simplified pump system.
If the absolute static pressure at the pump inlet is P i, then,

Figure 2
Total energy gradient
for the suction side
of a pump system

Where patm is the atmospheric pressure and Hs is the suction head, which includes not only the suction lift Z s but
also the sum of the losses in the inlet pipe h s and the velocity head, so that

Hs = Zs + hs + ύ2/2g (2)
Now, if the vapour pressure is pvap then theoretically cavitation starts when

pi = pvap

and the difference

H = (pi - pvap)/g

is a measure of the absolute head available at the pump inlet above the vapour pressure (above cavitation
inception) and is known as the net positive suction head or simply NPHS. Thus,

NPSH = (pi –pvap)/g = patm/g – Hs – pvap/g (3)

In SI, NPSE or NPSH is replaced by the net positive suction energy (NPSE), defined as

NPSE = g NPSH = patm/ - g Hs – pvap/ (4)

Thus, NPSE or NPSH represents the difference between the total energy at the inlet flange of the pump and the
vapour energy: it is energy available to the pump on its suction side if cavitation is to be avoided.
It was suggested by Thoma that NPSH is proportional to the pump total head H and he defined a cavitation
coefficient,
Th = NPSH/H = NPSE/g H (5)

Another useful parameter is the suction specific speed, analogous to the type number or specific speed,

Ks = Q½ /(NPSE)¾ (6)

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Where  = pump rotational speed in radians per second, Q = pump flow rate in cube metres per second, NPSE
is in joules per kilogram, and NPSH is in metres.
The relationship between the Thoma cavitation coefficient and the suction specific speed:

Thus,
Th = ( s/Ks)4/3 (7)

For geometrically similar pumps the scaling laws may be obtained from

(8)

The main effect of cavitation on pumps, besides erosion and vibration, is the possibility of performance failure .
Figure 3 shows the characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump with performance failure due to the cavitation
indicated.

Figure 3
Cavitation effects on
pump characteristic

If the pump on test is throttled at discharge, the normal characteristic is obtained. If, however, the inlet valve is
partially closed, so that the inlet pressure is lowered by a resistance R 1 , and then the pump is tested by opening
the discharge valve (starting from shut-off, it will perform normally as far as point A, but a further opening of
the discharge valve will no longer produce any increase in flow. Repeating the test with a greater inlet
resistance, say R2 , will cause the falling off of performance earlier, namely at some point such as B. By testing a
pump in the manner described, it is possible to determine the absolute pressure at inlet at which cavitation
occurs (performance failure) and, hence, to calculate the corresponding NPSH (or NPSE). If, now , the critical
NPSH is defined as the point at which the head falls by an arbitrary percentage, usually 2 or 3 per cent, below
the normal non-cavitation performance, then the critical NPSH may be plotted against the flow rate, as shown
in Figure 3 alongside the other pump characteristics. It then shows the minimum NPSH required by the pump in
order to avoid cavitation.

Page 14
In positive displacement pumps, the manometric suction head must be always greater than the vapour
pressure. The vapour pressure increases with temperature, as shown in Figure 4. For example, at 90C it is
equivalent to a column of 7.14 m of water. Supposing the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 740 mm of
mercury, which is 0.74 x 13.6 = 10.06 m of water, then the available difference for the manometric suction
head is 10.06 – 7.14 = 2.92 m of water. However, allowing for the drop of pressure due to inertia at the
beginning of the suction stroke and losses in the valve, the manometric suction head must be considerably
smaller than that figure. For pumps handling cold water, the maximum manometric head is, in practice,
between 6 and 6.5 metres. Figure 4 gives the relationship between the manometric suction head and
temperature for reciprocating pumps handling water, from which it is seen that, if the water temperature is
above 70C, the pump must be below the lower reservoir to ensure positive water pressure.

Figure 4
Maximum manometric
suction head for
reciprocating pumps
handling water

In turbines, the areas susceptible to cavitation are the blade trailing edge and the draft tube, since in these
places the pressure is likely to be the lowest. It is possible to avoid cavitation in turbines altogether by
submerging them to a low level, but this usually means excavation work, which in view of the large size of
average water turbines tends to be very costly. Therefore, cavitation is often accepted and provisions are
made for the periodic repair of the damage caused by it. Because cavitation occurs on the downstream side of
a turbine it has very little, if any, effect on its performance.
Turbine cavitation is usually defined by the Thoma coefficient
Th = (Hatm – Z – hvap)/H (9)

Where Hatm = atmospheric head Z = height of centreline of turbine above tailrace, h vap = vapour pressure head,
H = net head across turbine.
As with pumps, a suction specific speed Ks is also used. An empirical relationship between (K s)crit and s ,
suggested by Noskievic, is of the form

(Ks)crit = a/√s (10)

Where the value of a , a constant, is between 4.5 and 5.8.

Example 1
A centrifugal pump having dimensionless specific speed, based on rotational speed in radians per second equal
to 0.45, is to pump 0.85 m3 s – 1 at a total head of 152 m. The pump will take water with a vapour pressure of
350 Nm – 2 from a storage basin at sea level. For the pump speed consistent with the above requirements,
calculate the elevation of the pump inlet relative to the water level based on an acceptable value of suction
specific speed equal to 3.2.

Page 15 15/7/2008
Solution
s = Q ½/( gH)¾ = 0.45,
KS = Q ½/( gHt1)¾ = 3.2,

Where Ht1 = NPSH = Hatm – Z – h – Hvap. Therefore,

s /Ks = (Ht1 /H )¾ = H/13.6 = 153/13.6 = 11.2 m

But, Ht1 = Hatm – Z – h – H vap

and, assuming h = 0, Hatm = 10.3 m,

Hvap = 350/9.81 x 103 = 0.036 m.

i.e. Z = Hatm - Ht1 - H vap = 10.3 – 11.2 – 0.036 = - 0.936 m,

and so the pump must be submerged below the water level.

Fig-4- Cavitation pitting of Francis wheel and scroll case at Mammoth pool power house after 2.5 years of
operation, Conditions of service are relatively severe . Turbine 88 000 H P at an effective head of 950 ft ;
operating speed 360 rpm. The bright shiny spots are stainless steel welds that have withstood cavitation
pitting over one year. ( Courses of Southern Edison Co.)

Table 1: Relative rate of pitting for metals

Material Relative rate of pitting

Stellite, Co 55, Cr 33, W6 1

Tianium 50 A, Ti 96, Cr 2.7, Fe 1.3 1.2
Bronze, Cu 68, Zn 22, Mn 4, Fc 3, Al 3 3
Turbine metal, ca 56, zn 36, Mn2, Fe 2, Al 1, Ni 1 3
Welded aluminium bronze 5
Nickel 8
Welded stainless steel, Cr 18, Ni 8 10
Welded mild steel, place steel 170
Aluminium 210
Cast iron 375
Lead 1000

Page 16
 Table 2: Physical properties of water in SI Units

Tempera Specific Density Viscosity Kine Surface Vapor Vapor Bulk

ture weight ρ µ x 103 matic tension pressure pressure modulus
ºC ɣ Kg/m3 Ns/m2 Viscosity Ϭ Þ/ɣ head of
kN/m3 ỵ x 106 N/m KN/m2.abs Þ/ɣ elasticity
m2/s m Eυ x 10 – 6
KN/m2
0 9.805 999.6 1.781 1.785 0.0756 0.61 0.06 2.02

5 9.807 1000.0 1.518 1.519 0.0749 0.87 0.09 2.06

10 9.804 999.7 1.307 1.306 0.0742 1.23 0.12 2.10

15 9.798 999.1 1.139 1.139 0.0735 1.70 0.17 2.15

20 9.789 998.2 1.002 1.003 0.0728 2.34 0.25 2.18

25 9.777 997.0 0.890 0.893 0.0720 3.17 0.33 2.22

30 9.764 995.7 0.798 0.800 0.0712 4.24 0.44 2.25

40 9.730 992.2 0.653 0.658 0.0696 7.38 0.76 2.28

50 9.689 988.0 0.547 0.553 0.0679 12.33 1.26 2.29

60 9.642 983.2 0.466 0.474 0.0662 19.92 2.03 2.28

70 9.589 977.8 0.404 0.413 0.0644 31.16 3.20 2.25

80 9.530 971.8 0.354 0.364 0.0626 47.34 4.96 2.20

90 9.466 965.3 0.315 0.326 0.0608 70.10 7.18 2.14

100 9.399 958.4 0.282 0.294 0.0589 101.33 10.33 2.07

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