CHAPTER

3
DECISIONS

Java for Everyone by Cay Horstmann Slides by Donald W. Smith

Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved. TechNeTrain.com
 Chapter Goals
 To be able to implement decisions
 To learn how to compare integers, floating-
point numbers, and strings
 To understand the Boolean data type
 To develop strategies for validating user
input
In this chapter, you will learn how to
program simple and complex decisions.
You will apply what you learn to the task
of checking user input.

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 Contents
 The if Statement
 Comparing Numbers
and Strings
 Multiple Alternatives
 Nested Branches
 Boolean Variables and Operators
 Application: Input Validation

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 3.1 The if Statement
 A computer program often needs to make
decisions based on input, or circumstances.
 For example, buildings often ‘skip’ the 13 th floor,
and elevators should too.
 The 14th floor is really the 13th floor
 So every floor above 12 is really ‘floor - 1’
• If floor > 12, Actual floor = floor - 1
 The two keywords of the if statement are:
 if
The if statement allows a program to
 else carry out different actions depending on
the nature of the data to be processed.

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 Flowchart of the if statement

 One of the two branches is executed once

 True (if) branch or False (else) branch
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 Flowchart with only true branch

 The if statement may not need a ‘False’ (else) branch

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 Syntax 3.1: The if statement

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 ElevatorSimulation.java

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 Tips On Using Braces
 Line up all pairs of braces vertically
 Lined up Not aligned (saves lines)

 Always use braces

 Although single statement clauses do not require them

Most programmer’s editors have a

tool to align matching braces.

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 Tips on indenting blocks
 Use Tab to indent a consistent number of spaces

This is referred to as ‘block- structured’

code. Indenting consistently makes
code much easier for humans to follow.
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 Common Error 3.1
 It is easy to forget and add a semicolon
after an if statement.
 The true path is now the space just before the
semicolon

if (floor
if (floor >> 13)
13) ;;
{{
floor--;
floor--;
}}

 The ‘body’ will always be executed in this case

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 The Conditional Operator
 A ‘shortcut’ you may find in existing code
 It is not used in this book

Condition True branch False branch

 Includes all parts of an if-else clause, but uses:
•? To begin the true branch
actualFloor = floor > 13 ? floor - 1 : floor;
•: To end the true branch and start the false branch

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 3.2 Comparing Numbers and Strings
 Every if statement has a condition
 Usually compares two values with an operator
if (floor
if (floor >>
13) ..
13) ..
if (floor
if (floor >= 13)
>= 13)
..
..
if (floor
if (floor <<
13) ..
13) ..
if (floor
if (floor <= 13)
<= 13)
..
..
if (floor
if (floor == 13)
== 13)
..
..
Beware!

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 Syntax 3.2: Comparisons

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 Operator Precedence
 The comparison operators have lower precedence than arithmetic operators
 Calculations are done before the comparison
 Normally your calculations are on the ‘right side’ of the comparison or assignment operator

Calculations

actualFloor = floor + 1;

if (floor > height + 1)

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 Comparing Strings
 Strings are a bit ‘special’ in Java
 Do not use the == operator with Strings
 The following compares the locations of two strings, and not their contents

 Instead use the String’s ‘equals’ method:

if (string1 == string2) ...

if (string1.equals(string2)) ...

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 Relational Operator Use (1)

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 Relational Operator Use (2)

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 Common Error 3.2
 Comparison of Floating-Point Numbers
 Floating-point numbers have limited precision
 Round-off errors can lead to unexpected results
double rr == Math.sqrt(2.0);
double Math.sqrt(2.0);
if (r
if (r ** rr ==
== 2.0)
2.0)
{{
System.out.println("Math.sqrt(2.0) squared
System.out.println("Math.sqrt(2.0) squared is
is 2.0");
2.0");
}}
else
else
{{
System.out.println("Math.sqrt(2.0) squared
System.out.println("Math.sqrt(2.0) squared is
is not
not 2.0
2.0
but "" ++ rr ** r);
but r);
}} Output:
Output:
Math.sqrt(2.0) squared
Math.sqrt(2.0) squared is
is not
not 2.0
2.0 but
but 2.00000000000000044
2.00000000000000044
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 The use of EPSILON
 Use a very small value to compare the difference if floating-point values are ‘close enough’
 The magnitude of their difference should be less than some threshold
 Mathematically, we would write that x and y are close enough if:

final double
final double EPSILON
EPSILON == 1E-14;
1E-14;
double rr == Math.sqrt(2.0);
double Math.sqrt(2.0);
if (Math.abs(r
if (Math.abs(r ** rr -- 2.0)
2.0) << EPSILON)
EPSILON)
{{
System.out.println("Math.sqrt(2.0) squared
System.out.println("Math.sqrt(2.0) squared is
is approx.
approx.
2.0");
2.0");
}}
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 Common Error 3.3
 Using == to compare Strings
 == compares the locations of the Strings
 Java creates a new String every time a new word inside double-quotes is used
 If there is one that matches it exactly, Java re-uses it

String nickname
String nickname == "Rob";
"Rob";
.. .. ..
if (nickname
if (nickname ==
== "Rob") //
"Rob") // Test
Test is
is true
true

String name
String name == "Robert";
"Robert";
String nickname
String nickname == name.substring(0,
name.substring(0, 3);
3);
.. .. ..
if (nickname
if (nickname ==
== "Rob")
"Rob") //
// Test
Test is
is false
false

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 Lexicographical Order
 To compare Strings in ‘dictionary’ order
 When compared using compareTo, string1 comes:
• Before string2 if

• After string2 if
string1.compareTo(string2) << 00
string1.compareTo(string2)
• Equal to string2 if

 Notes
• All UPPERCASE letters come before lowercase
string1.compareTo(string2) >> 00
string1.compareTo(string2)
• ‘space’ comes before all other printable characters
• Digits (0-9) come before all letters
• See Appendix A for the Basic Latin Unicode (ASCII) table
string1.compareTo(string2) ==
string1.compareTo(string2) == 00

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 Implementing an if Statement

1) Decide on a branching condition

2) Write pseudocode for the true branch

3) Write pseudocode for the false branch

4) Double-check relational operators

 Test values below, at, and above the comparison (127, 128, 129)

5) Remove duplication

6) Test both branches

7) Write the code in Java

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 Implemented Example
 The university bookstore has a Kilobyte Day sale every October
24, giving an 8 percent discount on all computer accessory
purchases if the price is less than $128, and a 16 percent
discount if the price is at least $128.
if (originalPrice
if (originalPrice << 128)
128)
{{
discountRate == 0.92;
discountRate 0.92;
}}
else
else
{{
discountRate == 0.84;
discountRate 0.84;
}}
discountedPrice == discountRate
discountedPrice discountRate ** originalPrice;
originalPrice;

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 3.3 Multiple Alternatives
 What if you have more than two branches?
 Count the branches for the following
earthquake effect example:
 8 (or greater)
 7 to 7.99
 6 to 6.99
 4.5 to 5.99
 Less than 4.5

When using multiple if statements,

test general conditions after more
specific conditions.
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 Multiple Alternatives

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 Flowchart of Multiway branching
True
> 8.0? Most Structures Fall

False
True
>= 7.0? Many Buildings Destroyed

False
True Many buildings considerably
>= 6.0?
damaged, some collapse

False
True
Damage to poorly constructed
>= 4.5?
buildings
False
No destruction of buildings

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 if, else if multiway branching
if (richter
if (richter >=
>= 8.0)
8.0) // Handle
// Handle the
the ‘special
‘special case’
case’ first
first
{{
System.out.println("Most structures
System.out.println("Most structures fall");
fall");
}}
else if
else if (richter
(richter >=
>= 7.0)
7.0)
{{
System.out.println("Many buildings
System.out.println("Many buildings destroyed");
destroyed");
}}
else if
else if (richter
(richter >=
>= 6.0)
6.0)
{{
System.out.println("Many buildings
System.out.println("Many buildings damaged,
damaged, some
some collapse");
collapse");
}}
else if
else if (richter
(richter >=
>= 4.5)
4.5)
{{
System.out.println("Damage to
System.out.println("Damage to poorly
poorly constructed
constructed buildings");
buildings");
}}
else
else // so
// so that
that the
the ‘general
‘general case’
case’ can
can be
be handled
handled last
last
{{
System.out.println("No destruction
System.out.println("No destruction of
of buildings");
buildings");
}}
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 What is wrong with this code?
if (richter
if (richter >=
>= 8.0)
8.0)
{{
System.out.println("Most structures
System.out.println("Most structures fall");
fall");
}}
if (richter
if (richter >=
>= 7.0)
7.0)
{{
System.out.println("Many buildings
System.out.println("Many buildings destroyed");
destroyed");
}}
if (richter
if (richter >=
>= 6.0)
6.0)
{{
System.out.println("Many buildings
System.out.println("Many buildings damaged,
damaged, some
some collapse");
collapse");
}}
if (richter
if (richter >=
>= 4.5)
4.5)
{{
System.out.println("Damage to
System.out.println("Damage to poorly
poorly constructed
constructed buildings");
buildings");
}}

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 Another way to multiway branch
 The switch statement chooses a case based on an integer
value.
int digit
int digit == .. .. .;
.;
switch (digit)
switch (digit)
 break ends {{
case 1:
case 1: digitName
digitName == "one";
"one"; break;
break;
each case case 2:
case 2: digitName
digitName == "two";
"two"; break;
break;
 default case 3:
case 3: digitName
digitName == "three";
"three"; break;
break;
case 4:
case 4: digitName
digitName == "four";
"four"; break;
break;
catches all other case 5:
case 5: digitName
digitName == "five";
"five"; break;
break;
values case 6:
case 6: digitName
digitName == "six";
"six"; break;
break;
case 7:
case 7: digitName
digitName == "seven";
"seven"; break;
break;
case 8:
case 8: digitName
digitName == "eight";
"eight"; break;
break;
If the break is missing, the case 9:
9: digitName
digitName == "nine";
"nine"; break;
case break;
case falls through to the default: digitName
digitName == "";
""; break;
default: break;
next case’s statements.
}}
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 3.4 Nested Branches
 You can nest an if inside either branch of an if statement.
 Simple example: Ordering drinks
 Ask the customer for their drink order
 If customer orders wine
• Ask customer for ID
• If customer’s age is 21 or over
– Serve wine
• Else
– Politely explain the law to the customer
 Else
• Serve customers a non-alcoholic drink

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 Nested Branches

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 Flowchart of a Nested if
Ask for order
 Nested if-else inside true
branch of an if statement.
 Three paths
True
Wine
Get ID
?

False True
>=
Serve wine
21?
Serve non-
False
Alcoholic
drink Read law

Done
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 Tax Example: Nested ifs
 Four outcomes (branches)

 Single
• <= 32000
• > 32000
 Married
• <= 64000
• > 64000

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 Flowchart for Tax Example

 Four branches

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 TaxCalculator.java (1)

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 TaxCalculator.java (2)
 The ‘True’ branch (Married)
 Two branches within this branch

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 TaxCalculator.java (3)
 The ‘False’ branch (not Married)

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 Hand-Tracing
 Hand-tracing helps you understand whether a
program works correctly
 Create a table of key variables
 Use pencil and paper to track their values
 Works with pseudocode or code
 Track location with a marker such as a
paper clip
 Use example input values that:
 You know what the correct outcome should be
 Will test each branch of your code

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 Hand Tracing Tax Example (1)
 Setup
 Table of variables
 Initial values

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 Hand Tracing Tax Example (2)
 Input variables
 From user
 Update table

 Because marital status is not “s” we skip to the

else on line 41

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 Hand Tracing Tax Example (3)
 Because income is not <= 64000, we move to the else clause on line
47
 Update variables on lines 49 and 50
 Use constants

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 Hand Tracing Tax Example (4)
 Output
 Calculate
 As expected?

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 Choosing Test Cases
 Choose input values that:
A boundary case is a
 Test boundary cases and 0 values value that is tested in
 Test each branch the code.

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 Common Error 3.4
 The Dangling else Problem
 When an if statement is nested inside another if statement, the following can occur:

 The indentation level suggests that the else is related to the if country (“USA”)
• Else clauses always associate to the closest if

double shippingCharge
double shippingCharge == 5.00;
5.00; // $5
// $5 inside
inside continental
continental U.S.
U.S.
if (country.equals("USA"))
if (country.equals("USA"))
if (state.equals("HI"))
if (state.equals("HI"))
shippingCharge == 10.00;
shippingCharge 10.00; // Hawaii
// Hawaii is
is more
more expensive
expensive
else //
else // Pitfall!
Pitfall!
shippingCharge == 20.00;
shippingCharge 20.00; // As
// As are
are foreign
foreign shipment
shipment

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 3.5 Boolean Variables
 Boolean Variables
 A Boolean variable is often called a flag because it can be either
up (true) or down (false).
 boolean is a Java data type
• boolean failed = true;
• Can be either true or false
 Boolean Operators: && and ||
 They combine multiple conditions
 && is the and operator
 || is the or operator

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 Character Testing Methods
 The Character class has a number of handy
methods that return a boolean value:
if (Character.isDigit(ch))
if (Character.isDigit(ch))
{{
...
...
}}

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 Combined Conditions: &&
 Combining two conditions is often used in range checking
 Is a value between two other values?
 Both sides of the and must be true for the result to be true

if (temp
if (temp >> 00 &&
&& temp
temp << 100)
100)
{{
System.out.println("Liquid");
System.out.println("Liquid");
}}

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 Combined Conditions: ||
 If only one of two conditions need to be true
 Is a value between two other values?

if
if
 (balance
(balance
If either is true >> 100
100 ||
|| credit
credit >> 100)
100)
{{ The result is true
System.out.println(“Accepted");
System.out.println(“Accepted");
}}

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 The not Operator: !
 If you need to invert a boolean variable or comparison, precede it with !

if (!attending
if (!attending || || grade
grade << 60)
60)
{{
 If using !, try to use simpler logic:
System.out.println(“Drop?");
System.out.println(“Drop?");
}}
if (attending
if (attending &&
&& !(grade
!(grade << 60))
60))
{{
System.out.println(“Stay");
System.out.println(“Stay");
}}

if (attending
if (attending &&
&& (grade
(grade >=
>= 60))
60))

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 and Flowchart
if (temp
if (temp >> 00 &&
&& temp
temp << 100)
100)
{{
System.out.println("Liquid");
System.out.println("Liquid");
}}

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 or Flowchart

if (temp
if (temp <=
<= 00 ||
|| temp
temp >=
>= 100)
100)
{{
System.out.println(“Not Liquid");
System.out.println(“Not Liquid");
}}
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 Boolean Operator Examples

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 Boolean Operator Examples

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 Common Error 3.5
 Combining Multiple Relational Operators
if (0
if (0 <=
<= temp
temp <=
<= 100)
100) // Syntax
// Syntax error!
error!

 This format is used in math, but not in Java!

 It requires two comparisons:
if (0
if (0 <=
<= temp
temp &&
&& temp
temp <=
<= 100)
100)

 This is also not allowed in Java:

if (input
if (input ==
== 11 ||
|| 2)
2) // Syntax
// Syntax error!
error!

 This also requires two comparisons:

if (input
if (input ==
== 11 ||
|| input
input ==
== 2)
2)

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 Common Error 3.6
 Confusing && and ||
 It is a surprisingly common error to confuse and and or conditions.
 A value lies between 0 and 100 if it is at least 0 and at most 100.
 It lies outside that range if it is less than 0 or greater than 100.
 There is no golden rule; you just have to think carefully.

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 Lazy Evaluation: &&
 Combined conditions are evaluated from left to right
 If the left half of an and condition is false, why look further?

A useful example:

if (temp
if (temp >> 00 &&
&& temp
temp << 100)
100)
{{
System.out.println("Liquid");
System.out.println("Liquid");
}}
Done!

if (quantity
if (quantity >> 00 &&
&& price
price // quantity
quantity << 10)
10)

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 Lazy Evaluation: ||
 If the left half of the or is true, why look further?

if (temp
if (temp <= <= 00 ||
|| temp
temp >=
>= 100)
100)
{{Java



doesn’t!
Don’t do these second:
System.out.println(“Not Liquid");
System.out.println(“Not
 Assignment Liquid");
 Output
}}

Done!

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 De Morgan’s Law
 De Morgan’s law tells you how to negate && and ||
conditions:
 !(A && B) is the same as !A || !B
 !(A || B) is the same as !A && !B
 Example: Shipping is higher to AK and HI
if (!(country.equals("USA")
if (!(country.equals("USA") if !country.equals("USA")
if !country.equals("USA")
&& !state.equals("AK")
&& !state.equals("AK") || state.equals("AK")
|| state.equals("AK")
&& !state.equals("HI")))
&& !state.equals("HI"))) || state.equals("HI")
|| state.equals("HI")
shippingCharge == 20.00;
shippingCharge 20.00; shippingCharge == 20.00;
shippingCharge 20.00;

 To simplify conditions with negations of and or or

expressions, it is usually a good idea to apply De Morgan’s
Law to move the negations to the innermost level.
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 Input Validation
 Accepting user input is dangerous
 Consider the Elevator program:
 The user may input an invalid character or value
 Must be an integer if (in.hasNextInt())
if (in.hasNextInt())
{{
• Scanner can help! int floor
int floor == in.nextInt();
in.nextInt();
• hasNextInt // Process
// Process the
the input
input value
value
} }
– True if integer else
else
– False if not {{
System.out.println("Not integer.");
System.out.println("Not integer.");
}}
 Then range check value
 We expect a floor number to be between 1 and 20
• NOT 0, 13 or > 20
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 ElevatorSimulation2.java

Input value validity checking

Input value range checking

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 ElevatorSimulation2.java

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 Summary: if Statement
 The if statement allows a program to carry out different
actions depending on the nature of the data to be
processed.
 Relational operators ( < <= > >= == != ) are used to
compare numbers and Strings.
 Do not use the == operator to compare Strings.
 Use the equals method instead.
 The compareTo method compares Strings in
lexicographic order.
 Multiple if statements can be combined to evaluate
complex decisions.
 When using multiple if statements, test general
conditions after more specific conditions.
Java for Everyone by Cay Horstmann
Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved. Page 63
 Summary: Boolean
 The Boolean type boolean has two values,
true and false.
 Java has two Boolean operators that combine
conditions: && (and) and || (or).
 To invert a condition, use the ! (not) operator.
 The && and || operators are computed lazily:
As soon as the truth value is determined, no
further conditions are evaluated.
 De Morgan’s law tells you how to negate &&
and || conditions.
Java for Everyone by Cay Horstmann
Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved. Page 64