Mixer sensors

Single screw
extruder sensors
Twin screw
extruder sensor

Rotors Feeding Screws Dies Postex

systems
 Shearing of a test sample
in a heated mixing chamber
with counter rotating rotors

Test results:
3 2  Torque
 Melt temperature
Sigma rotors Banbury rotors

Roller rotors

Cam rotors
Extruders are generally used to:

• transport material
• plasticize
• compress
• homogenize
• compound
• vent
• chemical reaction
• building up pressure
Measuring of process variables:
• torque
• melt temperature
• melt pressure
• mass flow

Optimizing of process parameters:

• extruder speed
• temperature profile
• pressure
• screw design
 Conical Core
Screw

Standard
Metering
Screw
Short Metering
Screw

Venting Screw

Mixing
Screw
 P4
P3
pressure
P2 P5

P1

barrel - length [L/D]

0 11 14,5 20,5 24,5

• Twin Screw Extruders :
Feeding of material into
twin-screw extruders

Co-rotating Counter-rotating
 Venting screw

Intensive mixing screw

Standard screw
 Processing tasks - 1

• Plasticising
• Mixing
• Homogenising
• Cooking
• Gelling
• Degassing of momomers, oligomers, solvents
etc.
• Concentrating of polymer solutions
• Modifying by incorporation of plasticizers,
cross-linking agents, flame retardants,
UV-stabilisers, etc.
 Processing tasks - 2

• Incorporation of fillers and reinforcing agents such

as: wood flour, talc, glass fibres etc.
• Alloying of polymers
• Polycondensation, Polyaddition and Polymerization
of polymers
• Chemical reactions
• Dispersing of pigments and additives
• Breaking down of high molecular particles
Technical Specifications
Screws:

• Segmented, with slip-on

elements, allowing
variable configuration
• Screw diameter: 16 mm
• Corotating,
intermeshing
screws
• Screw shafts:

– Design: hexagonal
– Material: Heat
treated, abrasion
resistant
 Extruder barrel: segmented and hinged

Segmented screw

Sidefeeding
Parallel twin-screw extruder
Screw segments 1/3
Conveying elements:
Parallel twin-screw extruder Rheomex PTW25
 Process & machine schematics
*

Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine

Temperature: barrel zones, tool, die zone
Pressures: injection max, hold
Times: injection, hold, tool opening
Shot size: screw travel

Processing window
Temp. Thermal
degradation

Flash

Short-
shot
Melt

Pressure
 Typical pressure/temperature cycle

*
*

Time(sec) Time(sec)

Cooling time generally dominates cycle time

tcool 
half thickness 
2


  10 3 cm 3 sec for polymers
Calculate clamp force, & shot size

F=P X A = 420 tons

3.8 lbs = 2245 cm3

=75 oz

Actual ; 2 cavity 800 ton

Clamp force and machine cost
 Heat transfer Note; a Tool > apolymer

1-dimensional heat conduction equation :

 q
qx qx + Dqx (   c p  T )xy   x xy
t x
T
Fourier’s law qx  k
x
T  2T T  2T
  cp  k 2 or  2
t x t x

Boundary Conditions: 1st kind T ( x  x' )  constant

T
2nd kind k ( x  x' )  constant
x
T
3rd kind k ( x  x' )  h (T  T )
x
The boundary condition of 1st kind applies to injection molding since the tool is
often maintained at a constant temperature
 Heat transfer
Tii
Let Lch = H/2 (half thickness) = L ; tch = L2/a ;
t DTch = Ti – TW (initial temp. – wall temp.)
TW
T  TW x  t
Non-dimensionalize:   ;    1; FO  2
-L
x
+L
Ti  TW L L

Dimensionless equation:   2
 2
FO 
Initial condition FO  0  1
Boundary condition  0  0
 2  0

Separation of variables ;  ( , FO )   f ( FO ) g ( )
matching B.C.; matching I.C.
 Temperature in a slab
Centerline, q = 0.1, Fo = at/L2 = 1

Bi-1 =k/hL
 Reynolds Number
V2
Reynolds Number:  inertia
VL
Re  L 
V
 2 viscous 
L

For typical injection molding

  1 g cm3  103 N m 4 s 2 ; LZ  10 3 m thickness
1 Re  10 4
Part length 10
V  ;   103 N  s m 2
Fill time 1s

For Die casting

3 103 10 1 10 3
Re  3
 300
10
* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm
 Viscous Shearing of Fluids
F
v F/A
h m v
1  
h
F v
 v/h
A h Newtonian Viscosity

Generalization:     : shear rate

 Typical shear rate for
  ( )
 Injection molding Polymer processes (sec)-1

Extrusion 102~103
Calendering 10~102
“Shear Thinning” Injection molding 103~104
Comp. Molding 1~10
~ 1 sec-1 for PE 
 Viscous Heating
2
Rate of Heating P F v F v v
= Rate of Viscous Work      
Vol Vol A h h

Rate of Temperature rise 2 2

dT v dT  v
  cp    or   
dt h dt   c p h

Rate of Conduction out dT k d 2T k T

 ~
dt   c p dx 2   c p h 2

Viscous heating v 2
 Brinkman number
Conduction kT
For injection molding, order of magnitude ~ 0.1 to 10
 Non-Isothermal Flow
Flow rate: 1/t ~V/Lx
v
Heat transfer rate: 1/t ~a/(Lz/2)2

Flow rate V  L2z 1 VLz Lz

~   Small value
Heat xfer rate 4  Lx 4  Lx => Short shot

For injection molding

Flow rate 1 10cm / s  0.1cm 0.1cm
~ 3 2
  2 .5
Heat xfer rate 4 10 cm / s 10cm

For Die casting of aluminum

Flow rate 1 10cm / s  0.1cm 0.1cm 2
~   10
Heat xfer rate 4 0.3cm 2 / s 10cm
* Very small, therefore it requires thick runners
Injection mold die cast mold
 Fountain Flow
*

**

* Source: http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/inj/flw_froz.html ; ** Z. Tadmore and C. Gogos, “Principles of Polymer Processing”

 Shrinkage distributions

sample Transverse direction

V=3.5cm/s

V=8cm/s

* Source: G. Menges and W. Wubken, “Influence of processing conditions on Molecular Orientation in Injection Molds”
 Gate Location and Warping
Shrinkage
2.0 Direction of flow – 0.020 in/in
60 1.96
Sprue
60.32
Perpendicular to flow – 0.012

2.0 1.976

Before shrinkage After shrinkage

Air entrapment

Gate

Center gate: radial flow – severe distortion Edge gate: warp free, air entrapment

Diagonal gate: radial flow – twisting End gates: linear flow – minimum warping
 Effects of mold temperature and
pressure on shrinkage

0.030 0.030 LDPE

LDPE PP Acetal
0.025
Acetal 0.025 PP with
flow
Shrinkage

0.020
Nylon 6/6 0.020

Shrinkage
0.015 0.015
PP across
flow Nylon
6/6
0.010 0.010

0.005 0.005
PMMA
PMMA
0.000 0.000
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 6000 10000 14000 18000
8000 12000 16000
Mold Temperature (F)
Pressure on injection plunger (psi)
Where would you gate this part?
 Weld line, Sink mark
Gate

Weld line

Mold Filling Solidified part

Sink mark
Basic rules in designing ribs to
minimize sink marks
* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_design_7.htm
 Injection Molding
*

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_design_2.htm
 Where is injection
molding?

DLtotal = DLmold + DLshrinkage

Effects of mold temperature and
pressure on shrinkage
0.030 LDPE
Acetal
0.025 PP with flow

0.020

PP across flow
Shrinkage

0.015 Nylon
6/6
0.010

0.005
PMMA

0.000
6000 10000 14000 18000
8000 12000 16000

Pressure on injection plunger (psi)

 Tooling Basics
Nozzle
Sprue

Cavity Plate Core Plate

Moulding
Core
Cavity

Cavity Basic mould consisting of cavity and core plate

Gate Runner

Melt Delivery
Tooling for a plastic cup
Nozzle

Knob

Runner
Cavity

Part
Stripper plate

Core
 Tooling for a plastic cup

Nozzle

Nozzle Knob

Runner

Runner
Cavity
Cavity Cavity
Part

Part Part
Stripper
plate
 Tooling
*
*
*

* **

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/; ** http://www.hzs.co.jp/english/products/e_trainer/mold/basic/basic.htm (E-trainer by HZS Co.,Ltd.)

 Part design rules
• Simple shapes to reduce tooling cost
– No undercuts, etc.
• Draft angle to remove part
– In some cases, small angles (1/4) will do
– Problem for gears
• Even wall thickness
• Minimum wall thickness ~ 0.025 in
• Avoid sharp corners
• Hide weld lines
– Holes may be molded 2/3 of the way through the wall
only, with final drilling to eliminate weld lines
New developments- Gas assisted
injection molding
New developments ; injection
molding with cores
Injection Molded Housing shown in class

Cores used in Injection Molding

Cores and Part Molded in Clear Plastic

Extrusion Blown Film
Blown film take-off
Extrusion blow-molding
Injection Molding

Injection Blow
Molding
 Injection Blow Molding
• The parison is formed by the injection of molten
resin into a mold cavity and around a core pin
• The parison is not a finished product, but it is
subjected to subsequent step to form the final shape
• Second step, blowing of the intermediate part in a
second mold
• Because of distinct separation of the two steps, the
parison made by injection molding is called a
preform
 Injection blow molding process

• The mold is closed

• Resin is then injected to form a cylindrical part
• The mold is opened, and preform is ejected
 Injection blow molding process

• The preform is transferred to a blowing station while it is still hot or it can

be reheated
• After the second mold is closed, air is injected into the heated preform
(through a hole)
• Blow the preform, against the inside walls, mold is open and the part is
ejected
Stretch blow molding
• the plastic is first molded into a "preform" using the
Injection Molded Process. These preforms are
produced with the necks of the bottles, including
threads (the "finish") on one end. These preforms
are packaged, and fed later (after cooling) into an
EBM blow molding machine. In the SBM process,
the preforms are heated (typically using infrared
heaters) above their glass transition temperature,
then blown using high pressure air into bottles
using metal blow molds. Usually the preform is
stretched with a core rod as part of the process.
The stretching of some polymers, such as PET
(PolyEthylene Terepthalate) results in strain
hardening of the resin, allowing the bottles to resist
deforming under the pressures formed by
carbonated beverages, which typically approach 60
psi.
 Injection blow molding process
• The preform can be stored until the finished
blow molded is needed
• The flexibility of separating the two cycles has
proven useful in manufacture of soda pop
bottle
Comparison of extrusion and injection blow
molding
• Extrusion blow molding
– It is best suited for bottle over 200g in weight, shorter runs
and quick tool changeover
– Machine costs are comparable to injection blow molding
– Tooling costs are 50% to 75% less than injection machine
– It requires sprue and head trimming
– Total cycle is shorter than injection (since the parison and
blowing can be done using the same machine)
– Wider choice of resin
– Final part design flexibility
Comparison of extrusion and injection blow
molding
– Injection blow molding
• Best suited for long runs and smaller bottles
• No trim scrap
• Higher accuracy in final part
• Uniform wall thickness
• Better transparencies with injection blow molding,
because crystallization can be better controlled
• Can lead to improve mechanical properties from
improved parison design
Thermoforming Process
Reaction-Injection Molding Process
Recycling means using raw material that has
already been extracted; this reduces the need to
extract even more of it to meet consumption
wants.

Simply enough, to be sustainable or to avoid

depletion, the rate of extraction must be brought
lower or equal to the natural replenishment rate.
Recycling & Sustainability
WHAT IS RECYCLING?
WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY?
Sustainability is defined by the EPA as:
“meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.”

It stems from a concept developed by Thomas Jefferson which

basically means not leaving a debt for future generations.

The plastics industry takes a lot of criticism due to the large amount of
products that end up in land fills or on the side of the road as litter.
The plastics industry is not doing the littering, it is the people who use
the products.
PLASTIC IS THE DEVIL’S MATERIAL
PLASTIC IS BAD FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
PLASTIC CAUSES CANCER
PLASTIC KILLS SEA TURTLES

The relentless attacks on the plastics industry are

based primarily on perception – not fact.
Image courtesy of Turtle Bags
The plastics industry did not throw those bags into
the ocean or trees – people did.

If those bags had been recycled, none of these

pictures would have been possible

Image courtesy of the City of Los Angeles

Many of the same properties that make plastics such a
valuable resource also make it a target for environmental
groups.
• Plastics are durable and chemically resistant
-They don’t degrade easily
• Plastics are lightweight
-They will blow around and get stuck in trees and other plant life
- Some float and are visible when they are polluting waterways

It’s not the plastic that is the problem, it is the people who are not
disposing of them properly. To me, that is not a problem with our
INDUSTRY, it is a problem with our SOCIETY.
YOU are going to be the ambassadors of the plastics
industry.
YOU need to know how to defend yourself against bad
science.

When the real facts are examined, plastic materials

turn out to be the environmentally conscious
decision
Plastic or Glass?
Making containers out of plastic instead of glass leads to reductions in
fuel costs and emissions as well.
Lets look at mustard
Glass Plastic

• Weight Weight
• (oz.) % (oz.) %
• Mustard 9.0 64 8.0 86
• Package 5.0 36 1.3 14
• 14.0 100 9.3 100
• 71% less packaging per ounce of product
Plastic or Glass?
Peanut Butter anyone?

Glass Plastic
• Weight of the jar: 10.2 oz. 1.7 oz.
• % of total weight
• that’s product: 64% 91%
• Shipping and energy comparison: you can ship the same amount of
peanut butter in 2 tractor trailers that you would need to ship in 3
tractor trailers if you use plastic packaging instead of glass
Paper or Plastic?
Whenever I go to the grocery store, and the cashier asks me whether I
want paper or plastic bags, I ALWAYS reply, “Plastic, because it’s better
for the environment.”
Usually I get either a dumb look or a chuckle, but every once in a while I
get someone who will start to argue with me, and then it’s GO TIME.
• It takes 7 semi’s to ship the same amount of paper bags as it does to
ship plastic bags. That’s 7X the amount of fuel consumed and
emissions into the atmosphere.
– 1,000 paper bags weigh 140 lbs (46 in high)
– 1,000 plastic bags weighs 16 lbs (4 in high)

Wow, those’re some heavy paper bags!

Image courtesy of theliar.
Paper or Plastic?
• Plastic bags consume only 18% of the energy required to make paper
bags. Most energy production plants burn fossil fuels to produce their
energy, they don’t run on fairy dust.
• Plastic bags use only 3% of the fresh water required
to make paper bags.
• Plastic bags produce 80% LESS waste than paper
bags. That means that it takes 5X the number of
garbage trucks to carry the same number of paper
bags to the dump as 1 truck of plastic bags.

• It takes 91% less energy to recycle one pound of

plastic bags when compared to one pound of paper
Paper or Plastic?
Plastic bags are commonly recycled into more plastic bags and also
plastic lumber.

So which is better for the environment?

That’s good science.

When you take a barrel of crude oil and

convert it into gasoline, once you burn it
off in your car, it is gone. If you convert
the crude oil into plastic, it can be reused
to make products over and over and then be used to produce energy
Sustainability
There are four basic points to the sustainability platform:
1. Recycling
2. Biodegradable polymers or polymers made from sustainable
sources
3. Reduction of the amount of material used in products
4. Designing for recyclability

Picnic tables made from

recycled materials
Recycling
There are 7 primary recycling symbols
They are listed at the left. The most
commonly recycled materials are
PETE (Polyester), polyethylene, and
polypropylene.
Polyester is commonly recycled into
carpeting and polyethylene bags are recycled into more
bags.
Many times polyethylene and polypropylene recycled
materials are mixed and molded into items like flower
pots or plastic lumber.
• Recycling
Regardless of how much we reduce the amount of plastic materials in
products and how efficient we make the designs, there will still be
material that needs to be recycled and reused.
One of your challenges in the industry will probably
be to identify areas where this material can be
utilized.
There are many components that are not as
dimensionally or functionally demanding that this
material can be used for. There are applications in
every industry where recycled materials can be
used.
Coming up with innovative ways to utilize this ‘waste’
makes companies more efficient and can save money.
• Recycling
There are two basic types of recycled plastic:
• Post-consumer
• Post-industrial

• Post-consumer is more difficult to deal with. It needs to be sorted,

washed, ground, and sometimes re-extruded into pellets. It can
contain materials like metal, labels, and biological material.

• Post-industrial is usually just regrind or contaminated material which

is no longer useable by the original purchaser.
Biodegradable
Many years ago, there were two primary plastic initiatives meant to deal
with the accumulation of plastic waste. These were recycling and
biodegradability.
The two initiatives were directly opposed to each other because when
you make an article out of recycled material, you may want it to last
for a long time, like plastic lumber.

If biodegradable materials are mixed in with the materials being

recycled, it very well may cause a premature failure of the product.
Biodegradable
At the time, the direction the industry chose was recycling.
Now, with the cost of oil rising, and the high demand for fossil fuels,
biopolymers are rising to the forefront of the industry once again.
It’s not a hoax that we will eventually run out of fossil fuels, it’s a fact.
Our society may condemn plastics for the pollution it causes, but try to
imagine life without them. The convenience, safety, and durability
they provide would be sorely missed.
Biodegradable
Some of the first plastic materials created were from agricultural
sources – rubbers, cellulosic, and casein.
Today, many of the newer polymers that are being developed are being
created from starches. Mainly corn and potato.
Polylactic acid is produced from corn starch and has many properties
similar to that of Polyester Terephthalate. It is more difficult to
process and is more easily degraded by higher temperatures, but the
material shows potential.
Biodegradable
Biodegradable vs. Compostable.
A biodegradable plastic is one that will break down in to CO2, water, and
biological components. Some definitions require that there can be
NO polymer chains left intact at the end of its life cycle.
Compostable means that the material will break down and into smaller,
less dangerous constituents in a composting facility.
Not all biopolymers are biodegradable and compostable.
They may break down, but it doesn’t happen overnight,
it can take weeks or even months.
Biodegradable
Why do they take so long to break down?
Typically the degradation process is performed by microbes, in the
presence of oxygen and moisture. The microbes eat the starches and
cause the polymer matrix to break into smaller and smaller pieces.
In a landfill, both can be scarce. Nothing degrades well in a landfill. You
can dig up newspapers decades old and still read the newsprint.
After 20 yrs

1990
Material Reduction
Reducing the amount of plastic material that goes into a product serves
several purposes;
• The product will cost less
• There will be less material after use for recycling or disposal
• There will be more material available for other uses.
• Less energy is required to produce and transport the product.

• If you go into product design, you must be conscious of the

advantages or using less material in your products.
• The improvement in material properties, processes, and designs
makes the ability to reduce material content possible.
Material Reduction
There are some other ways to reduce material content as well.
Concentrated – just add water (detergents and cleaners)
Refillable – buy the concentrate and refill your bottles
Returnable – When I went to Sweden in 2006, I went into a convenience
store to buy a water. The bottle was much thicker than the ones we
have here in the states and it was scratched and scuffed. The reason
is that they clean and refill some of their bottles numerous times like
we used to do with soda and beer bottles.

Image courtesy of kt
Design for Recyclability
This is an area where a plastics engineer can make a real impact if they
know what they are doing.
• Try to make the assembly out of a single material or compatible
materials.
• Make assemblies that can be easily disassembled
• Avoid screws and metal fasteners in favor of snap or press fits if
possible
• Reduce the number of components
• Avoid labels if possible
• Try not to mix in thermosetting components in assemblies
(thermoplastic elastomers instead of rubber seals)
Design for Recyclability
You may not have the final word on the designs you produce, but you
will at least be able to offer alternatives to make your product
‘greener’ and easier to take to its next use.

It used to be that products were designed for ‘end of life’. They were
designed to last for a specified period of time and that was all the
thought that was given to them.

Now many products are being designed with ‘next life’ in mind. What
will it be able to be used for AFTER its intended use.
Energy
There is a lot of energy locked up in a polymer chain. As has been
discussed previously, some polymers are like ‘frozen gasoline’.
Instead of making gasoline and heating oil out of fossil fuels, why not
make useful products out of them, and when we are finished with
those products, make more useful products out of them, and maybe
one more round of useful products, and THEN burn them for fuel.
Conclusion
You will be the ambassadors of the Plastics Industry
You may eventually be faced with decisions that will
affect our environment
You need to be informed
You need to be aware
You need to make the right decisions

And you need to inform others

Sustainability

Questions?