Birlik International School

Grade 11 Chemistry

Teacher: Lina Domingos Sambo

Chapter1: Chemistry in Context

Chemistry in every day life

• Medicines : • Cleaning: (Soap)

Clothes: synthetic fibers

• Food Fertilizers
NH4NH3
Chemistry the central science
The Scientific Method

Chemistry is based on observation and experimentation. The

series of steps that scientist use to answer questions and
solve problems is called the scientific method

Steps for Scientific Method

1. Ask a question : questions come from observation
2. Form a hypothesis: hypothesis is the clear statement of
what is expected to be the answer of the question
3. Test the hypothesis: conduct a controlled experiment
4. Analyze the result: after completing experiments,
making observations and collecting data it is necessary to
analyze all the information that was obtained
 The Scientific Method

5.Draw conclusion: do they support your hypothesis

( yes or no)

6. Communicate the results: after any scientific

investigation, you should report your results to let
others know what you have learned
Phase and classification of matter

Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass,

and is all around us.

Can be classified according to physical state, or

composition.

State of Matter
Gas : water vapor
 State of Matter
Gas: no fixed volume or shape, can be compressed to
occupies smaller volume or can be expand to occupies a
larger one (gases equation)

Liquid : liquid water

Has defined volume

independent of the
container, but has
no specific shape
State of Matter

Solid: Ice Has defined shape and

volume.
State of Matter
A fourth state of matter occurs naturally in interior of stars is
gaseous state that contains appreciable numbers of electrically
charged particles is called plasma (A plasma torch can be used
to cut metal).
State of Matter
Pure Substances

Most form of matter are not chemically pure (air,

gasoline, sidewalk : show). Pure substance is a matter
that has distinct properties and composition do not vary
from sample to sample (example).

Substances are either elements or compounds,

elements can not be decomposed into simpler
substances.
Compound are substances composed of two or more
elements, containing two or more atoms
Pure Substances
Mixture

Mixture is composed of two or more types of matter that

can be present in varying amounts and can be separated
by physical changes such as evaporation (examples).
Each substance in a mixture retain its chemical identity and
properties, it can be heterogeneous do not have the
same composition, properties and appearance throughout
or homogeneous have uniform composition, are also
called solutions
Practical examples

Aspirin is composed of 60% carbon, 4.5% hydrogen,

35.5% oxygen by mass, regardless its source classify
aspirin.
Properties of matter

Each substance has a unique composition, the properties

of matter can be categorized as physical or chemical.

Physical properties can be observed without changing

the identity and composition of the substance. These
properties include colour, odour, density, melting point,
boiling point, and hardness. Physical changes take place
without changing its chemical composition (example)

Chemical properties describe the way a substance may

change, or react, to form other substances (example).
Chemical changes produces one or more types of
matter( example)
Properties of matter

Some properties do not depend on the amount of

sample being examined intensive properties
(example temperature)

Extensive properties depend on the amount of the

sample (example mass);
Properties of matter
General properties of the matter: are properties
observed on matter that do not depend on the substance
they are made of.

• Extension : the property that matter has to occupy

space

• Inertia: a property of matter by which it continues in its

existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line,
unless that state is changed by an external force

• Compressibility: property of matter that allows it to

have its volume reduced when under pressure (only for
gases)
Properties of matter

• Elasticity: the properties of matter that allows it to go back

to its initial shape after being deformed

• Indestructibility : matter can not be destroyed or created

it can only be transformed

• Divisibility : property that allow matter to be divided into

smaller particles
 Properties of matter

Specific properties of matter are properties of matter that

vary according to the substance the matter is made of.
example: Colour, taste, odour, shine

Hardness: is defined as the resistance of a material to

deformation

Malleability: the capability of being shaped by deformation

Ductility : the ability of a material to have its shape changed (as

by being drawn out into wire or thread) without losing strength or
breaking

Density: is defined as mass per unit of volume

Measurements

Many properties of matter are quantitative, which means

that are associated with number. When a number
represents a measured quantity the unit must be
specified (example).

All measurements contain 3 elements a number that

indicates the magnitude, of the quantity being measured,
unit to provide a basis of comparing this quantity with a
standard reference and some uncertainty or error

The units used for scientific measurements are those of

the metric system.
Measurements
Measurements
 Measurements

The SI base unit of length is the meter, a distance slightly

longer than a yard. Mass is a measure of the amount of
material in an object.

Temperature, a measure of the hotness or coldness of an

object, is a physical property that determines the direction of
heat flow.
 Measurements
The temperature scales commonly employed in science are
the Celsius and Kelvin scales. The Celsius scale was
originally based on the assignment of 0 °C to the freezing
point of water and 100 °C to its boiling point at sea level

The Kelvin scale is the SI temperature scale, and the SI unit

of temperature is the kelvin (K). Zero on the Kelvin scale is the
lowest attainable temperature, -273.15 °C.
T(K)= T(°C)+273.15 °C
The common temperature scale in the United States is the
Fahrenheit scale, which is not generally used in science.
Water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F.
T(F)=)+32
Measurements
Derived SI Units
• Volume (cubic meter)
• Density (Kg/ cubic meter)
 Separating Mixtures

Separation techniques are those techniques that can be used

to separate two different states of matter such as liquid and
solids
 Separating Mixtures

Magnetic Separation: Involves the separation of magnetic

substances from non-magnetic substances using a magnet
 Separating Mixtures

Decantation : is a process for separation of mixture of immiscible

liquids or a liquid and a solid mixture.
This separation method takes advantage of the difference in
density of the liquids ex separation of oil and water
 Separating Mixtures

Sedimentation: this process takes advantage of gravity for the

sedimentation of solids in the case of solid-liquid separation
 Separating Mixtures

Filtration is a mechanical operation that separates solids

from fluids ( liquid or gases) by adding a medium through
which only the fluid can pass.
The substance that is left behind in the filtration medium is
called residue
The liquid which passes through filtration medium is called
filtrate
 Separating Mixtures

Evaporation This operation

technique can be used to
separate solutes that are
dissolved in solvent, by boiling
the solution. The solvent gets
vaporized leaving back the
solution ex production of salt from
sea water
 Separating Mixtures

Distillation is an effective method to separate mixture comprised

of two or more pure liquids called components

This mixture is heated until one of the components boils (turns into
vapor),they must have different boiling points
can be classified as simple distillation and fractional distillation
Separating Mixtures

Simple
distillation : it is
used to separate
liquid mixtures
which boil without
decomposition
and have enough
difference in their
boiling points
separation of
acetone and
water
 Separating Mixtures
Fractional
distillation: it is
used for the
separation of a
mixture of two or
more mixable liquids
for which the
difference in boiling
point is less than 25
kelvin .
Separation of
different fraction from
petroleum products
distillation of crude oil
Classification of chemical reactions
Exothermic Reaction

In an exothermic reaction heat is transferred from the system to the surroundings. The
enthalpy change for an exothermic reaction has a negative value (heat is produced)

CH4(g)+ 2O2(g) → CO2(g)+2H2O(g)+890.5 kJ

 Endothermic reactions

In an endothermic reaction, heat is transferred from the system to the heat surroundings,
the enthalpy change for an endothermic reaction has a positive value ( heat is gained)

CaCO3(s) + 169,5 kJ/mol → CaO(s)+CO2(g

Acid-Base Reaction

Acid-base reaction, are reaction that take place when an acid reacts with a base
forming a salt and water.

The salt is formed from the negative ion from the acid and the positive ion of the base

HCl + NaOH → NaCl +H2O

Oxidation-reduction

Oxidation-reaction reactions, or redox reactions are

reactions where electrons are transferred from one
reactant to other.

Loss of electrons by a substance is called oxidation

Gain of electrons by other substance is called
reduction
when one reactant loses electrons that is when is
oxidized, another reactant must gain them, that is be
reduced (example)

2Mg(s) + O2(g) →2MgO

Organic reaction reactions between organic compounds

CH3COOH(aq) + CH3CH2OH(aq) → CH3COOCH2CH3+ H2O

Inorganic reaction reactions between inorganic compounds

KCl(aq) + HNO3 HCl+KNO3

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry (pronounced stoy-key-OM-uh-tree) is the area

of study that examines the quantities of substances
consumed and produced in chemical reactions. A balanced
chemical reaction:
Stoichiometry

Balancing equations: once you know the formulas of

the reactants and products we can write an unbalanced
equation. We then balance the equation by determining
the coefficients that provide equal numbers of each
type of atom on two sides of the equation. Indicate the
states : gas (g), solid (s), liquid (l), and aqueous (water
solution)
Stoichiometry

In chemistry the counting unit for numbers of atoms,

ions or molecules in a laboratory size sample is the
mole. 1mole has 6,02*1023 particles and is called
Avogadro Number (examples).
And occupies 22.4L in standard temperature (25oC
) and pressure ( 1 atm)

Molar mass is the mass in grams of one mol of a

substance (example)
• Calculate molar mass, convert mass to mole,
stoichiometric calculation
Stoichiometry
Chapter2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Atom: an atom is the smallest particle of an

element that has the properties of that element
and can enter into chemical reaction.

The word atoms from the Greek word “atomos’’

means indivisible.

The first suggestion that matter is composed of

atoms is attributed to Lucippus and
Democritus ( 460BC-370 BC)
 Atomic Theories
Democritus ( 460BC-370 BC) : he believed that
atoms were indivisible and indestructible, and that
they made up all the matter in the universe. ( his
ideas where not based on the scientific method but
just philosophy).

John Dalton( 1766-1844) : he formulated the first

atomic theory, using what was known about chemical
reactions at that time.
• Law of Conservation of mass- mass can not be
created or destroyed during chemical reaction
( example)
Atomic Theories
• Law of define composition- a given compound
always contain the same proportion of elements by
mass (example)

• Law of multiple proportion- when two elements

form a series of compounds, the ratios of the
masses of the second element that combine with 1
gram of the first element can be always reduced
to the small whole number (example)
Atomic Theories

From this resulted the Dalton atomic theory

experimentally based:
• Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms;

• Atoms are indivisible ( can not be broken into

smaller pieces), during chemical reaction atoms
are rearranged but they do not brake a part, and
they can not be created or destroyed;

• All atoms of a given element are identical in mass

and other properties
 Atomic Theories

• Atoms of different elements differ in mass and other

properties (example);

• Atoms of one element, can combine with atoms of

another element to form compound- new complex
particles (example);
Atomic Theories
Drawbacks of Dalton’s atomic theory
• The indivisibility of an atom was wrong: an
atom can be further subdivided into protons,
neutrons and electrons (explain);

• Atoms of the same element can vary in their

masses and densities, those atoms are called
isotopes (atoms that have the same number
of protons and electrons but different number
of neutrons);
 Atomic Theories
• Dalton also claimed that atoms of different
elements are different in all aspects. This has
been prover wrong in some cases: Arngon and
Calcium atoms, has an atomic mass of 40 atomic
mass unit(amu). These atoms are called isobars
(atoms of different chemical elements that have
the same mass number);

• The theory also fails to explain the existence of

allotropes, it does not account for differences in
properties of coal, graphite and diamond;
Atomic Theories

Joseph John Thompson (1856- 1940)

• He is credited for the discovery of the electron

and isotopes, and the mass spectrometer.

Plum pudding model

Was hypothesized by Thompson, who described
an atom as being a large positively charged body,
that contained small free floating negatively
charged particles called electrons
Atomic Theories

Thompson atomic model

• Atoms are neutral, they have

the same amount of particles
charged negatively and
particles charged positively:
-1+1=0
• Based on Thompson
experiments was possible to
discover the subatomic
particles: Protons and
Electrons.
Atomic Theories
Atomic Theories
Rutherford (1871 – 1937)
Rutherford discovered protons and
the nucleus.
He showed that atoms have (+)
particles in the center, and are
mostly empty space.
He called these (+) particles
protons. He called the center
of atoms the nucleus.

Rutherford’s team identified the Positive atomic nucleus

using the gold foil experiment.
Rutherford’s team later discovered the proton and
neutron.
Rutherford experiment
Rutherford shot extremely small particles of light at a sheet of gold
foil. He surrounded the gold foil with a special material that would
light up (kind of like a fire fly lighting up in the night sky) if it was hit
by the light particles

Rutherford theorized that if atoms were soft blobs, the light

particles would pass through the gold foil in a perfect straight line.
Most of the particles did pass straight through leading him to
believe that atoms were mostly empty space.

What surprised him though was that some light particles were
deflected with some even bouncing straight back. Based on this
observation, he had a new addition to Thompson's atomic theory,
that atoms must have both empty space and a small part made
up of matter
 Atomic Theories

Niels Bohr (1913)

• He built on the concept that the mass
of an atom is contained mostly in the
nucleus
• Every atom has a specific number of
electron shells;
• He proposed that electrons move
around the nucleus in specific
layers, or shell.
• The further the electron is from the
nucleus the greater amount of energy
they posses
Atomic Theories

James Chadwick (1932)

• He discovered neutrons;
• Working with Rutherford he discovered particles with no
charge;
• He called neutrons, and they are also found in the
nucleus.
Atomic structure and symbolism
 Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and
Isotopes

What makes an atom of one element different from an atom of

another element is that the atoms of each element have a
characteristic number of protons. Indeed, the number of
protons in an atom of any particular element is called that
element’s atomic number.

Atoms of a given element can differ in the number of neutrons

they contain and, consequently, in mass.

mass number (A) = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and
Isotopes

Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass

numbers (that is, same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons) are called isotopes of one
 Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and
Isotopes
Most elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes. We
can determine the average atomic mass of an element,
usually called the element’s atomic weight.

average mass =Σ(fractional abundance × isotopic mass)i

 The Mole, Avogadro Number and
Molar Mass

Mole is defined as the SI unit for the amount of a substance.

in chemical reactions we count the number of moles reacting and

not the mass.

Molar balance is different of mass balance

2mol of hydrogen+one mol pf oxygen = 2 mol of water

2 grams of hydrogen+ 16 grams of oxygen= 18 grams of

water
 The Mole, Avogadro Number and
Molar Mass

Formula Mass
The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic
weights of the atoms in the chemical formula of the substance

If the chemical formula is the chemical symbol of an element,

such as Na, the formula mass equals the atomic weight of the
element, in this case 23.0 amu. If the chemical formula is that of
a molecule, the formula mass is also called the molecular
mass. The molecular weight of glucose (C6H12O6), for
example, is
The mass in grams of one mole of a substance (that is, the
mass in grams per mole)
is called the molar mass of the substance. The molar mass in
grams per mole of any substance is numerically equal to its
formula weight in atomic mass units. For NaCl, for example, the
formula weight is 58.5 amu and the molar mass is 58.5 g/mol
In chemistry the counting unit for numbers of atoms, ions or molecules in a
laboratory size sample is the mole. 1mole has 6,02*1023 particles and is called
Avogadro Number (examples).
And occupies 22.4L in standard temperature (25oC) and pressure ( 1 atm)
Molar mass is the mass in grams of one mol of a substance (example)
The Nature of Light
Light is a special kind of electromagnetic energy.

The speed of light, although quite fast, is not infinite. The speed of
light in a vacuum is expressed as c = 2.99 × 108
m/s.

Light travels in a vacuum at a constant speed, and this speed is

considered a universal constant.

Two key properties of light interacting with a medium are:

It can be deflected upon passing from one medium to another

(refraction): When a ray of light passes from one medium to
another, it changes direction (bends) at the interface because of
the difference in speed of the wave in the media.
The Nature of Light
The Nature of Light

It can be bounced off a surface (reflection)

When a ray of light reflects off a surface (such as a mirror), its

new direction depends on only the angle of incidence.
Characteristics of light waves

To understand light waves, it is important to understand

basic wave motion itself. Water waves are sequences of
crests (high points) and troughs (low points) that “move”
along the surface of the water.
Characteristics of light waves
Characteristics of light waves

The maximum value of the wave displacement is called the

amplitude (A) of the wave.

The cycle starts at zero and repeats after a distance. This

distance is called the wavelength (λ).

Light can have different wavelengths, such as the blue light and
red light shown in Figure above.

The inverse of the wavelength (1/λ) is the wave number (), which
is expressed in
 Characteristics of light waves

The wave propagates at a wave speed (v). This wave speed

in a vacuum is equal to c, and is less than c in a medium.

At a stationary point along the wave, the wave passes by in a

repeating cycle.
The time to complete one cycle is called the cycle time or
period () and can be calculated using
Another important measure of a wave is its frequency (f). It is
measured as the number of waves that pass a given point in
one second.

The unit for frequency is cycles per second, also

called hertz (Hz).
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The waves we see- visible light – are just a small part of a

great range of waves that make up the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Just as the ear cannot hear above or below certain

frequencies, the human eye cannot detect light outside a
small range of wavelengths (0.76–0.49 μm).
Atoms and electromagnetic spectrum

Energy in form of photons is absorbed or emitted as

electrons change energy levels within the structure of an
atom.

Photon (not proton) a particle like unit of

electromagnetic energy (light), emitted or absorbed by
an atom when an electrically charged electron changes
state
As an electron receives and absorbs electromagnetic
energy (in form of a photon) it jumps from a lower
level to higher energy state (level)
As an electron emits or ‘’gives of’’ electromagnetic
energy it jumps from a higher to lower energy level
 Bohr model of atom

The Bohr atom is based on three postulates

1. Electron in orbit around the nucleus have only certain

specific energy;

2. Electron can transit from one energy level to another,

changing the energy of the atom

3. The energy of a photon determines the frequency of

light that is associated with the photon

When all the electrons are in an unexcited or ground state the

atom is assumed to be at its lowest energy level. When atoms
absorb energy electrons can be excited and move into higher
energy shells.
As electrons move from one shell to another unique
amounts of energy are absorbed or emitted, this is how an
atom can absorb or emit light . The light’s unique energy
are dependent on the electronic structure of the atom
Electron arrangement in atoms

Electrons energy level

Updates to Bohr Model:
• Electrons are NOT in circular orbits around nucleus.
• Electrons are in a 3-D region around the nucleus called
atomic orbitals.
• The atomic orbital describes the probable location of
the electron
Principal Energy Level (n)
-"shells
n=integers: n= 1, 2, 3, etc.
• As n increases:
> orbital becomes larger
> electron spends more
time farther away
from nucleus
> atom's energy level
increases
http
Energy sublevel
Principal energy levels are broken down into sublevels.
• Sublevels define the orbital shape (s, p, d, f)
> n=1, 1 sublevel (s)
> n=2, 2 sublevels (s, p)
> n=3, 3 sublevels (s, p, d)
> n=4, 4 sublevels (s, p, d, f)
Electrons exist in different energy levels (previously described as
“shells”)
•The energy levels correspond to the horizontal rows on the
periodic table

Orbitals are areas within shells where the electrons are located
• These orbitals may have different shapes
• There may be different numbers of orbitals within a shell

•Each orbital can hold two electrons (Pauli Exclusion

Principle)
• S orbitals – 1 orbital per shell – holds 2 electrons total
• P orbitals – 3 orbitals per shell – holds 6 electrons total
• D orbitals – 5 orbitals per shell – holds 10 electrons total
• F orbitals – 7 orbitals per shell – holds 14 electrons total
Shape of s orbital
Shape of P orbital
Shape of d orbital
Shape of f orbital
Electron configuration

Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons

around the nucleus of an atom based on their energy level.
Electronic distribution per level
K=2
L=8
M=18
N=32
O=50
P=72
Q=98
Draw the orbitals in this format, use diagonal lines to
determine order of orbitals to fill
 Ions
Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same number
of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons.

When the numbers of these subatomic particles are not equal,

the atom is electrically charged and is called an ion.

If electrons are removed from or added to an atom, a charged

particle called an ion is formed. An ion with a positive charge is
a cation (pronounced CAT-ion); a negatively charged ion is an
anion (AN-ion).

Atomic charge = number of protons − number of electrons

 Chemical Symbols

Are used to indicate an element or an atom of an

element (remember they have the same properties)

Most symbols have one or two letters, but three-letter

symbols have been used to describe some elements that
have atomic numbers greater than 112. To avoid confusion
with other notations, only the first letter of a symbol is
capitalized.
Chemical Symbols

Imagine if all of
the only had C
for chemical
symbol???
 Molecules and Chemical Formulas

Compounds composed of molecules contain more than one type

of atom and are called molecular compounds.

A molecule of the compound methane, for example, consists of

one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms and is therefore
represented by the chemical formula CH4
.
Molecules and Chemical Formulas

Several elements are found in nature in molecular form—

two or more of the same type of atom bound together.
For example, most of the oxygen in air consists of
molecules that contain two oxygen atoms

And is represented by the chemical formula O2 (read “oh

two”). The subscript tells us that two oxygen atoms are
present in each molecule.
A molecule made up of two atoms is called a diatomic
molecule.

The elements that normally occur as diatomic molecules are

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the halogens (H2, O2, N2,
F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2)
Molecules and Chemical Formulas
 Molecular and Empirical Formulas

Chemical formulas that indicate the actual numbers of atoms

in a molecule are called molecular formulas.

Chemical formulas that give only the relative number of atoms

of each type in a molecule are called empirical formulas.

The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2

, for example, whereas its empirical formula is HO.

The molecular formula for ethylene is C2H4 ,and its empirical

formula is CH2
The molecular formula of a substance summarizes the
composition of the substance but does not show how the atoms
are joined together in the molecule. A structural formula shows
which atoms are attached to which, as in the following examples:
The organization of the elements

The history of the periodic table

Antoine Lavoisier ~1770-1789
• Wrote the first list of elements containing 33
elements
• Distinguished between metals and non-metals

Jons Jakob Berzelius~ 1828

• Developed a table of atomic weights
• Introduced letters to symbolize elements
Johann Döbereiner~ 1829
• Developed 'triads’, groups of 3 elements with similar properties
– Li, Na & K
– Ca, Sr & Ba
– Cl, Br & I
John Newlands ~1864
• The known elements (>60) were arranged in order of atomic
weights
• Observed similarities between the first and eighth elements,
the second and ninth elements etc
• He proposed the 'Law of Octaves’
Lothar Meyer ~1869
• Compiled a Periodic Table of 56 elements based on the
periodicity of properties such as molar volume when arranged in
order of atomic weight
Dmitri Mendeleev ~ 1869
• Produced a table based on atomic weights but arranged
'periodically' with elements with similar properties under each other
• Gaps were left for elements that were unknown at
that time and their properties predicted (the elements were gallium,
scandium and germanium)
• The order of elements was re-arranged if their
properties dictated it

In 1869,Dmitri Ivanovitch Mendeléev created the first accepted

version of the periodic table.
•He grouped elements according to their atomic mass, and as he
did, he found that the groups had similar chemical properties.
•Blank spaces were left open to add the new elements he
predicted would occur.
William Ramsay ~1894
• Discovered the Noble Gases

Henry Moseley ~1913

• Determined the atomic number of each of the elements
• He modified the 'Periodic Law' to read that the properties of
the elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers
• 1914:Predicted that there were 3 unknown elements
between aluminium and gold
• Concluded there were only 92 elements up to and including
uranium
Glenn Seaborg ~1940
• Synthesized transuranic elements
– The elements after uranium #92 in the periodic table
– Also part of the Actinides
The periodic table

Periodic Law - When the elements are arranged in order of

increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their
physical and chemical properties
•Modern Periodic consists of: Periods - Horizontal rows of the
periodic table (side to side)
Groups or families - – vertical (up and down) column of
elements in the periodic table
Groups – Arranged by the numbers of valence electrons
i.e. number of electrons in the outer shell Elements in the
same group has same number of valence electrons

Each group has similar chemical and bonding properties

8 groups

•Periods – Arranged by increasing atomic number

Elements in a period have the same number of electronic
shells 7 periods
Groups go
down on the
periodic
table
Elements in
the same
group, have
the same
number of
valence
electrons
Periods go across
on the periodic
table
Periods have the
same number of
“shells”
 Groups
Columns of elements are called groups or families.
Elements in each group have similar but not identical properties.
All elements in a group have the same number of valence
electrons.
Include: Group A: Alkali metals, alkali earth metals, boron,
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, halogens and noble/inert gases
Group B: transition metals

lanthanides and actinides (inner transition metals)

 Hydrogen
The hydrogen found on top group I, but it is not a member of
that group
Hydrogen is in a class of its own
It’s a colourless gas at room temperature
Diatomic, reactive gas
It has one proton and one electron in its one and only energy
level.
Promising alternative fuel source
 Alkali Metals
The alkali family is found in the first column of the periodic
table.
Atoms of the alkali metals have a single electron in their
outermost level, in other words, 1 valence electron.
Tend to lose 1 electron (form +1 ions)
Alkali metals are never found as free elements in nature.
They are always bonded with another element.
They are shiny, have the consistency of clay, and are
easily cut with a knife.
Highly reactive, stored under oil
Density less than water
Melting point and boiling point are very low compared to
other metals
 Alkaline Earth Metals
2 valence electrons
Tend to lose the 2 electrons (form +2 ions)
They are always combined with non-metals in
nature e.g. metal oxides
They have two valence electrons.
Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and
calcium, among others.
Several are important mineral nutrients e..g Ca and
Mg
 Boron Family
Elements in group 3
3 valence electrons
Exists as both non-metals and metals
Metallic character increases down the group
Al used to produce many products e.g. cans, car body parts etc.
Ga used in computer chips
 Carbon Family
Elements in group 4
4 valence electrons
Exists as both non-metals and metals
Metallic character increases down the group
Carbon important element for all living organisms, form basis
of branch of organic chemistry
Silicon is a metalloid and is also abundant e.g. sand
Germanium is a metalloid, used in electronics as semi-
conductors
Tin and Lead are metals, with high densities
Pb used in nuclear reactors and protection against
radioactive materials
 Nitrogen Family
Elements in group 5
5 valence electrons
Nitrogen makes up over ¾ of the atmosphere
Nitrogen is exist in diatomic state
Phosphorous exist in two forms – white and red
P used in explosives and in the manufacture of fertilizers
 Oxygen (Chalcogens) Family
Elements in group 6
6 valence electrons
Tend to gain 2 electrons (form -2 ions)
Oxygen is a diatomic gas, essential for life
Sulfur is a solid, yellow non-metal – used in the manufacture
of various chemical products e.g. sulfuric acid, paints etc.
Se is a metal – good conductor and light sensitive, used in
solar cells and photocopy machines
Te and Po are metalloids – radioactive
 Halogens Family
Elements in group 7
7 valence electrons
Most reactive non-metal elements, tend to gain 1 electron (form
-1 ions)
Found in combination with other elements in nature e.g. NaCl
Used to manufacture different products – disinfectants, bleach,
plastic etc.
F and Cl are gases, Br is liquid, I and At are solid
 Noble/Inert Gases
Elements in group 8
Have filled valence shell, overall charge is zero
Unreactive (inert), monoatomic gases
All are colourless, tasteless and odourless
He is less dense than air, used in balloons
Ne used in advertising lights, glows
Radon is radioactive
 Transition Metals
Include elements in group B
Arrangement of electrons in outer shell vary, so
the ion charge changes
Lose different of valence electrons, depending
on the reaction
Therefore, degree of reactivity and properties
varies by element
Two categories: Main transition metals e.g. Cu,
Zn, Fe, Au, Ag

Inner transition metals Lanthanides and Actinides

 Division of the Periodic Table
Different types of elements are found on different parts of the
table
3 main classification: Metals = to the left (majority of the
elements).
Nonmetals = to the right (18 elements).
Metalloids = found on a “staircase” dividing metals and
nonmetals (7 elements). Lanthanides & Actinides
(metals) added to bottom to make table manageable.
 Metals
Lustrous (shiny)
Malleable (can be pounded into thin sheets)
Ductile (can be pulled into wires)
Conductive Heat and electricity

Solids (except mercury)

High density, Mp and Bp
React with O2 to form oxides
React with H2O to form metal hydroxides
React with acids to form Hydrogen gas.
Uses: building structures, electric cables, radiators, colored paints,
catalysts for industrial reactions, etc.
 Alloys
Mixture of two or more metal elements
Mixture or alloy has different properties from those of
the component elements
Property is dependant on the types and amount of
individual metals used.
Common alloys include: Sterling silver (Ag, Cu)
Brass (Zn, Cu)
Stainless Steel (Fe, Cr, Ni)
Duralium (Al, Cu)
 Non-metals
Wide range of properties, opposite to that of metals
Tend to: Be Dull
Poor conductors
Gain e- during reactions
Many are gases at room temp
Some are brittle solids e.g. sulfur
Bromine = only non-metal which is liquid at room temp
Not react with acids
Have lower melting & boiling points.
 Metalloids
Also called “semi-metals” or “staircase elements.”
Combination of properties of metals and nonmetals.
Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium, &
Polonium
Many exhibit semi-conducting behavior.
The electrons occupying the outermost shell orbital(s) (highest
value of n) are called valence electrons, and those occupying the
inner shell orbitals are called core electrons .
Since the core electron shells correspond to noble gas electron
configurations, we can abbreviate electron configurations by
writing the noble gas that matches the core electron configuration,
along with the valence electrons in a condensed format. For our
sodium example, the symbol [Ne] represents core electrons,
(1s22s22p6) and our abbreviated or condensed configuration is
[Ne]3s1.
 Periodic trends
Atomic Radius

The atomic radius is defined as one-half the distance between the

nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together
Atomic Radius
 Atomic Radius

Within any group of elements, the atomic radius will increase

from top to bottom. The reason:
•The elements located in higher periods have more electrons,
and therefore require more [higher] energy levels.

•More energy levels translates into a larger radius.

 Atomic Radius

Within a period, the atomic radius decreases from left to

right across the periodic table. The reason:
•Elements within the same period have the same number
of energy levels and therefore the same shielding effect.

•As you move toward the right, the nuclear charge

increases.

•With more nuclear charge, and no increase in shielding,

the outermost electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus,
and hence the atomic radius decreases.
 Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron
from an atom
The Reason:
•As you move from left to right within a period:

•Atomic radius decreases

•Nuclear charge increases

•Shielding Effect does not change

•As a result, valence electrons are drawn closer to the

nucleus and held more tightly. This means it requires more
energy to remove an electron.
Ionization Energy decreases as you move top to
bottom on the periodic table.
The Reason:
•As you move from top to bottom in a group:
•Atomic radius increases
•Nuclear charge increases
•Shielding Effect increases

•As a result, valence electrons are farther from the

nucleus and more loosely held.
This means it requires less energy to remove an
electron.
 Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to

attract shared electrons when the atom is part of a
compound.

Metal Atoms
• Compared to non-metals, metals have:
• Larger atomic radii

• Weaker nuclear charge

As a result, metal atoms tend to lose their valence electrons
when reaching a stable configuration.

•Thus, metals tend to have lower electronegativities.

Electronegativity of Metals
Electronegativity of Non-Metals

Non-Metal Atoms
• Compared with metal atoms, non-metals have

•Smaller atomic radii

•Stronger nuclear charge

• As a result non-metals tend to gain valence electrons when

reaching a stable configuration.

•Thus, non-metals tend to have higher electronegativities.

IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

consider the sodium atom, which has 11 protons and 11

electrons.
This atom easily loses one electron. The resulting cation
has 11 protons and 10
electrons, which means it has a net charge of 1+ .
The net charge on an ion is represented by a superscript. The
superscripts + ,2+ And 3+ , for instance, mean a net charge
resulting from the loss of one, two, and three electrons,
respectively. The superscripts - , 2-and 3- represent net charges
resulting from the gain of one, two, and three electrons,
respectively.
Chlorine, with 17 protons and 17 electrons, for example, can gain
an electron in chemical reactions, producing the ion:
In addition to simple ions such as Na+ and Cl-
, there are polyatomic ions, such as NH4+
(ammonium ion) and (sulfate ion). These latter ions consist of
atoms joined as in a molecule, but they have a net positive or
negative charge.
Predicting Ionic Charges

Many atoms gain or lose electrons to end up with the same

number of electrons as the noble gas closest to them in the
periodic table. Noble-gas elements are chemically nonreactive

For example, the loss of one electron from an atom of sodium

leaves it with the same number of electrons as in a neon atom
(10).
Similarly, when chlorine gains an electron, it ends up with 18,
the same number of electrons as in argon.
 Ionic Compounds
A great deal of chemical activity involves the transfer of electrons
from one substance to another.

When elemental sodium is allowed to react with elemental

chlorine, an electron transfers from a sodium atom to a chlorine
atom, forming
A Na+ ion and a Cl- ion.

Because objects of opposite charge attract, the Na+ and Cl- the
ions bind together to form the compound sodium chloride (NaCl).

Sodium chloride, which we know better as common table salt, is

an example of an ionic compound,
a compound made up of cations and anions.
We can often tell whether a compound is ionic
(consisting of ions) or molecular (consisting of
molecules) from its composition. In general, cations
are metal ions and anions are nonmetal ions.
Consequently, ionic compounds are generally
combinations of metals and nonmetals, as in NaCl.

In contrast, molecular compounds are generally

composed
of nonmetals only, as in H2O
We can write the empirical formula for an ionic compound if
we know the charges of the ions. This is true because
chemical compounds are always electrically neutral.
Consequently, the ions in an ionic compound always occur in
such a ratio that the total positive charge equals the total
negative charge. Thus, there is one Na+ to one Cl- (giving
NaCl), one Ba2+ to two Cl- (giving BaCl2)
 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The names and chemical formulas of compounds are essential

vocabulary in chemistry.
The system used in naming substances is called chemical
nomenclature, from the Latin words nomen (name) and calare
(to call).
1. Cations
a. Cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the
metal:
b. If a metal can form cations with different charges, the positive
charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses following
the name of the metal:
An older method still widely used for distinguishing between
differently charged ions of a metal uses the endings -ous and -
ic added to the root of the element’s Latin name:

c. Cations formed from nonmetal atoms have

names that end in -ium:
 2. Anions
a. The names of monatomic anions are formed by replacing
the ending of the name of the element with -ide:

A few polyatomic anions also have names ending in -ide:

b. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen have names ending
in either -ate or -ite and are called oxyanions. The -ate is
used for the most common or representative oxyanion of an
element, and -ite is used for an oxyanion that has the same
charge but one O atom fewer:
Prefixes are used when the series of oxyanions of an element
extends to four members, as with the halogens. The prefix
per- indicates one more O atom than the oxyanion ending in -
ate; hypo- indicates one O atom fewer than the oxyanion
ending in -ite:
c. Anions derived by adding to an oxyanion are named by
adding as a prefix the word hydrogen or dihydrogen, as
appropriate:
H+

Notice that each H+added reduces the negative charge of the

parent anion by one. An older method for naming some of these
ions uses the prefix bi-. Thus, the ion HCO3- is commonly called
the bicarbonate ion, and HSO4- is sometimes called the bisulfate
ion.
3. Ionic Compounds
Names of ionic compounds consist of the cation name followed
by the anion name:
3. Ionic Compounds
Names of ionic compounds consist of the cation name followed by
the anion name:
Names and Formulas of Acids

For our present purposes, an acid is a substance whose

molecules yield hydrogen (H+) ions when dissolved in water

1. Acids containing anions whose names end in -ide are

named by changing the –ide ending to -ic, adding the prefix
hydro- to this anion name, and then following withthe word
acid:
2. Acids containing anions whose names end in -ate or -ite are
named by changing -ate to -ic and -ite to -ous and then adding the
word acid. Prefixes in the anion name are retained in the name of
the acid:
2. Acids containing anions whose names end in -ate or -ite are
named by changing -ate to -ic and -ite to -ous and then adding
the word acid. Prefixes in the anion name are retained in the
name of the acid:
 Names and Formulas of Binary
Molecular Compounds
The procedures used for naming binary (two-element) molecular
compounds are similar to those used for naming ionic
compounds:

1. The name of the element farther to the left in the periodic

table (closest to the metals) is usually written first. An exception
occurs when the compound contains oxygen
and chlorine, bromine, or iodine (any halogen except fluorine), in
which case oxygen is written last.

2. If both elements are in the same group, the lower one is

named first.
3. The name of the second element is given an -ide ending.

4. Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of

each element.
The prefix mono- is never used with the first element.
 Binary Acids

1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-

2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the
suffix -ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word
Percentage Composition from Chemical
Formulas
percentage composition of a compound— is the percentage by
mass contributed by each element in the substance.

The calculation depends on the formula

weight of the substance, the atomic weight of the element of
interest, and the number of
atoms of that element in the chemical formula
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES

The empirical formula for a substance tells us the relative

number of atoms of each element in the substance.

The empirical formula H2O shows that water contains two H

atoms for each O atom.

This ratio also applies on the molar level: 1 mol of H2O contains 2
mol of H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms.

Conversely, the ratio of the numbers of moles of all elements in a

compound gives the subscripts in the compound’s empirical
formula. Thus, the mole concept provides a way of calculating
empirical formulas.
Mercury and chlorine, for example, combine to form a compound
that is 73.9% mercury and 26.1% chlorine by mass.

Thus, if we had a 100.0-g sample of the compound, it would

contain 73.9 g of mercury and 26.1 g of chlorine.

(Samples of any size can be used in problems of this type, but we

will generally use 100.0 g to simplify the calculation of mass from
percentage.)

Using atomic weights to get molar masses, we can

calculate the number of moles of each element in the sample:
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas

We can obtain a molecular formula for any compound from its

empirical formula if we
know either the molecular weight or the molar mass of the
compound.
The subscripts in the molecular formula of a substance are always
whole-number multiples of the subscripts in its empirical formula.
This multiple can be found by dividing the
molecular weight by the empirical formula weight:
In Sample Exercise 3.13, for example, the empirical formula of
ascorbic acid was determined to be C3H4O3.
This means the empirical formula weight is 3*(12amu)+4*(1amu)
+3*(16amu)= 88 amu
. The experimentally determined molecular
weight is 176 amu. Thus, we find the whole-number multiple that
converts the empirical formula to the molecular formula by
dividing:
Consequently, we multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula
by this multiple, giving the molecular formula: C6H8O6.
 Molarity

Molarity (symbol M) expresses the concentration of a solution as

the number of moles of solute in a liter of solution (soln):
 Dilution

Solutions used routinely in the laboratory are often purchased or

prepared in concentrated form (called stock solutions). Solutions
of lower concentrations can then be
obtained by adding water, a process called dilution.

Moles solute before dilution = moles solute after dilution

Other Units for Solution Concentrations

Mass Percentage
The mass percentage of a solution component is defined as the
ratio of the component’s mass to the solution’s mass, expressed as
a percentage:

Mass percentage is also referred to by similar names such as

percent mass, percent weight, weight/weight percent, and other
variations on this theme.

The most common symbol for mass percentage is simply the

percent sign, %, although more detailed symbols are often used
including %mass, %weight, and (w/w)%.
 Volume Percentage

Liquid volumes over a wide range of magnitudes are conveniently

measured using common and relatively inexpensive laboratory
equipment.

The concentration of a solution formed by dissolving a liquid

solute in a liquid solvent is therefore often expressed as a volume
percentage, %vol or (v/v)%:
 Mass-Volume Percentage

“Mixed” percentage units, derived from the mass of solute and the
volume of solution, are popular for certain biochemical and
medical applications.

A mass-volume percent is a ratio of a solute’s mass to the

solution’s volume expressed as a percentage.

The specific units used for solute mass and solution volume may
vary, depending on the solution.

For example, physiological saline solution, used to prepare

intravenous fluids, has a concentration of 0.9% mass/volume
(m/v), indicating that the composition is 0.9 g of solute per 100 mL
of solution.
 Parts per Million and Parts per Billion
Very low solute concentrations are often expressed using
appropriately small units such as parts per million (ppm)
or parts per billion (ppb).

Like percentage (“part per hundred”) units, ppm and ppb may be
defined in terms of masses, volumes, or mixed mass-volume
units.
The mass-based definitions of ppm and ppb are given here: