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Chapter 10
Endocrine System
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

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Characteristics 1

• The endocrine system is composed of endocrine glands

and specialized endocrine cells located throughout the
body.
• Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute amounts of
chemical messengers called hormones into the
bloodstream, rather than into a duct.
• Hormones then travel through the general blood circulation
to target tissues or effectors.

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Characteristics 2

• The target tissues have receptors for a specific hormone.

• Hormones produce a particular response in the target

tissues.

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Endocrine System Glands

Figure 10.1
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Classes of Chemical Messengers 1

Autocrine:
• released by cells and a have local effect on same cell type

• Example - eicosanoids

Paracrine:
• released by cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity
• Example - somatostatin

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Classes of Chemical Messengers 2

Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators:

• secreted by nerve cells

• Example - nervous system function

Hormones and neurohormones:

• secreted into blood and bind to receptors on target tissues

• Example - epinephrine and insulin

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Endocrine System Functions 1

1. Regulation of metabolism

2. Control of food intake and digestion

3. Modulation of tissue development

4. Regulation of ion levels

5. Control of water balance

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Endocrine System Functions 2

6. Regulation of cardiovascular function

7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients

8. Control of reproductive functions

9. Stimulation of uterine contraction and milk release

10. Modulation of immune system function

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Types of Hormones

Water-soluble hormones:
• include proteins, peptides, amino acids

• most common type of hormone

• Examples - growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin

Lipid-soluble hormones:
• include steroids and eicosanoids

• Examples - Luteinizing hormone, androgens

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Effects of Binding Proteins

Figure 10.2
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Control of Hormone Secretion 1

• Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release

of some hormones.
• These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli
because they circulate in the blood,
• Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood.

• Hormone release can also be under neural control.

• Following action potentials, neurons release a

neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells that
produce the hormone.

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Control of Hormone Secretion 2

• Hormone release can also be controlled by other

hormones.
• It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in turn,
stimulates the secretion of other hormones.
• The same three types of stimuli (humoral, neural, and
hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit hormone release.

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Control by Humoral Stimuli

Figure 10.3
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Control by Neural Stimuli

Figure 10.4
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Control by Hormonal Stimuli

Figure 10.5
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Inhibition of Hormone Release 1

• Humoral inhibition of hormone release generally involves

the actions of companion hormones.
• Usually each of the companion hormones performs an
opposite function.
• For example, to raise blood pressure, the adrenal cortex
secretes the hormone aldosterone in response to low
blood pressure, but to lower it the heart atria secrete atrial
natriuretic peptide.
• They work together to maintain homeostasis of blood
pressure.

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Inhibition of Hormone Release 2

• Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate

targets.
• If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine
gland does not secrete its hormone.
• In control of hormone release by other hormones, some
hormones are inhibitory hormones, that reduce the release
of the hormone being controlled.
• For example, thyroid hormones can control their own
blood levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary tropic
hormone.

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Regulation of Blood Hormone Levels

• Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in the

blood within a homeostatic range: negative feedback and
positive feedback
• Most hormones are regulated by a negative-feedback
mechanism, whereby the hormone’s secretion is inhibited
by the hormone itself once blood levels have reached a
certain point.
• Some hormones are regulation by positive feedback, as
exemplified by tropic hormone action.

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Negative and Positive Feedback

Figure 10.6
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Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action 1

• A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the

receptor for that hormone.
• The portion of each receptor molecule where a hormone
binds is called a receptor site.
• The receptor site has specificity, allowing only one
hormone to bind to it.
• Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
“family” of receptors that are structurally similar.
• This specificity is due to molecular shape and chemical
characteristics.

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Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action 2

• Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind to their

own classes of receptors.
• Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors due to
their lipid solubility and small molecular size allowing to
easily pass through the cell membrane.
• Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound
receptors. Water-soluble hormones are polar molecules
and cannot pass through the cell membrane.

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Lipid-Soluble Hormone Receptors

• Nuclear receptors can also be located in the cytoplasm,

but then move to the nucleus when activated.
• When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the hormone-
receptor complex interacts with nuclear DNA to regulate
specific gene transcription.

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Water-Soluble Receptors

• Water-soluble hormones, such as protein and peptide

types, cannot pass through the cell membrane.
• Interactions are with membrane-bound receptors, that are
proteins that extend across the cell membrane, with their
hormone-binding sites exposed on the cell membrane’s
outer surface.
• When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the response
dictated by the hormone-receptor interaction.

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Target Tissue Specificity and Response

Figure 10.7
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Nuclear and Membrane-Bound Receptors

Figure 10.8
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Action of Nuclear Receptors

• Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein synthesis.

• Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell membrane

and bind to their receptors, with the complex now binding
to hormone-response elements on DNA.
• This action regulates the transcription of specific
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules and
protein synthesis occurs.

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Nuclear Receptor Model

Figure 10.9
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Membrane Bound Receptor Actions 1

• Membrane bound receptors act in two ways, either altering

the activity of G proteins on the inner surface of the cell
membrane or directly altering the activity of intracellular
enzymes.
• Activation of G proteins, or intracellular enzymes, elicits
specific responses in cells, including the production of
molecules called, second messengers.

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Membrane Bound Receptor Actions 2

• A second messenger molecule is produced inside a cell

once a ligand binds to its membrane-bound receptor.
• A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific cellular
processes inside the cell in response to the hormone.

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G-Protein Activation 1

• Many membrane-bound receptors produce responses

through the action of G proteins, which consist of 3
subunits.
• The G proteins are so named because one of the subunits
binds to guanine nucleotides.
• G-proteins, after several sequential actions, interact with
adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP to
cAMP.
• cAMP binds to protein kinases and activates them.

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G-Protein Activation 2

• Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn, regulate the

activity of other enzymes.
• Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases can
increase or decrease its activity.
• Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme, breaks
down cAMP and thus results in no further cell stimulation.

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Cyclic AMP Synthesis

Figure 10.10
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Signal Amplification 1

• Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of second

messengers act quickly and have an amplification effect.
• Each receptor produces thousands of second
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and ultimately
amplification of the hormonal signal.

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Signal Amplification 2

• With amplification, a single hormone activates many

second messengers, each of which activates enzymes
that produce an enormous amount of final product.
• The efficiency of this second-messenger amplification is
virtually unparalleled in the body.

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Cascade Effect

Figure 10.11
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Pituitary Gland 1

• Small gland in brain

• Controlled by hypothalamus

• Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior

• Secretes at least 6 hormones

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Pituitary Gland 2

Figure 10.12
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Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary Gland

• The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes hormones under

the control of the hypothalamus.
• Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing
hormones that stimulate the production and secretion of
a specific hormone.
• Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of a specific
anterior pituitary hormone

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Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary

• The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases

hormones produced by neuroendocrine cells in the
hypothalamus.
• The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary are
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

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Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary

Figure 10.13
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 1

Growth Hormone:
• Target tissues: most tissues

• Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and

organs
• Abnormalities:
• Too much GH causes giantism

• Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 2

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

• Target tissues: thyroid gland

• Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions

• Abnormalities:
• Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges (goiter)

• Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 3

Gonadotropin Hormone

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) for females:

• Target tissue: ovaries

• Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone production

LH for males:
• Target tissue: testes

• Function: production of sperm and testosterone

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 4

Gonadotropin Hormone

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) for females:

• Target tissue: follicles in ovaries

• Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion

FSH for males:

• Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)

• Function: sperm production

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 5

Prolactin:
• Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries

• Functions: milk production

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 6

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH):

• Target tissues: melanocytes in the skin

• Functions: stimulate melanin production in melanocytes

Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH):

• Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex

• Functions: stimulate production of certain corticosteroids

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Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary 1

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):

• Target tissues: kidneys

• Functions: conserve water

• Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus

• low ADH

• kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute

• (watery) urine

• can lead to dehydration and thirst

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Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary 2

Oxytocin:
• Target tissues: uterus
• Functions: increases uterine contractions during labor

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Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary

Figure 10.14
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Thyroid Gland

One of largest glands

Requires iodine to function
Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular cells:
• Target tissues: most tissues
• Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for
growth
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
• Target tissues: bone and some other tissues
• Function: reduces blood calcium level when high
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Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands

(d) ©Victor Eroschenko

Figure 10.15
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Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

Figure 10.16
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Thyroid Hormone Disorders

Hypothyroidism: Hyperthyroidism:
• Decreased metabolism • Increased metabolism
• Weight gain, reduced • Weight loss, increased
appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness
• Low temp. and pulse • Higher temp. and pulse
• Dry, cold skin • Warm, flushed skin
• Myxedema in adults • Graves’ disease (leads to
goiter)
• Cretinism in infants

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Parathyroid Gland

Parathyroid hormone (PTH):

• Target tissues: bones and kidneys

• Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than

calcitonin)

If Ca2+ is low, then osteoclasts break down bone matrix and

less Ca2+ is lost in urine.

If Ca2+ is high, then osteoclasts don’t break down bone matrix

and more Ca2+ is lost in urine.

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Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

Figure 10.17
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Adrenal Gland Actions

• The adrenal glands are two small glands located superior

to each kidney
• Each adrenal gland has an inner part, called the adrenal
medulla, and an outer part, called the adrenal cortex.
• The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex function as
separate endocrine glands.

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Adrenal Glands

(c) ©Victor Eroschenko

Figure 10.18
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Adrenal Medulla Hormones 1

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
• Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
• Functions: released as part of fight or flight response

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Regulation of Adrenal Medullary Secretions

Figure 10.19
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Adrenal Cortex Hormones 1

Aldosterone:
• Type of mineralocorticoid
• Target tissues: kidneys
• Functions: regulate ion balance, causes Na+ and H2O to
be retained and K+ to be secreted, indirectly involved with
blood pressure and blood volume

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Adrenal Cortex Hormones 2

Cortisol:
• Type of glucocorticoid
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: increases breakdown of fat and protein for
energy uses reduces inflammatory and immune responses

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Regulation of Cortisol Secretion

Figure 10.20
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Adrenal Cortex Hormones 3

Androgens:
• Target tissues: most tissues

• Functions:
• Males: secondary sexual characteristics

• Females: sex drive

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Pancreas Actions 1

• The pancreas is a mixed gland, with an exocrine portion

and an endocrine portion.
• The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes digestive
enzymes.
• The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of pancreatic
islets (Islets of Langerhans), which are dispersed
throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas.

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Pancreas Actions 2

• The islets consist of three cell types, each of which

secretes a separate hormone.
• Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin,
and delta cells secrete somatostatin.
• These three hormones regulate the blood levels of
nutrients, especially glucose.

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Pancreas Structure

©Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 10.21
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Pancreas Hormones 1

Insulin:
• Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue

• Functions:
• regulates blood glucose levels

• after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted

• extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

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Insulin Abnormalities

Diabetes mellitus:
• Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors

• Symptoms: hyperglycemia, exaggerated appetite, excess

urine, dehydration, thirst, fatigue
• Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required)

• Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese people,

can be treated with diet but can turn into type I

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Pancreas Hormones 2

Glucagon:
• Target tissues: liver

• Function:
• regulates blood glucose levels

• between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is secreted

• glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into glucose

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Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels

Figure 10.22
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Testes Hormone

Testosterone:
• Target tissues: most tissues

• Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ

development and function

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Ovarian Hormones

Estrogen/Progesterone:
• Target tissues: most tissues

• Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland

development and menstrual cycle

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Thymus Gland Hormone

Thymosin:
• Target tissues: immune system tissues

• Functions: promotes immune system development and

function

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Pineal Gland Hormone

Melatonin:
• Target tissues: hypothalamus

• Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and controls

circadian rhythms. Light affects its function.

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