Class 2 Unit 2 Ecosystem
Class 2 Unit 2 Ecosystem
Ecosystem
• The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek words Oikos- home + logos-
study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings.
• Tansley (1935) gave term ecosystem and described it as a self-regulating group of biotic communities of species
interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
• Ecosystem is the basic structural and functional unit of the environment. Both the living and non-living component of
the nature, when interact with each other to establish a stable living community, it is called as Ecosystem. Examples of
Ecosystems: Terrestrial or land-based ecosystem, Aquatic or water-based ecosystems etc.
• Ecosystems show large variations in their size, structure, composition etc. However, all the ecosystems are
characterized by certain basic structural and functional features which are common.
• Ecosystems have basically two types of components, the biotic and abiotic, as described below:
STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS: Different living organisms constitute the biotic
component of an ecosystem and belong to the following categories:
• (i) Producers: These are mainly producing food themselves e.g., Green plants, , Algae.
They are known as photo-autotrophs (auto = self, photo = light, troph = food). There
are some chemo-autotrophs, which are a group of bacteria, producing their food from
oxidation of certain chemicals. e.g. sulphur bacteria.
• (ii) Consumers: These organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms. They
are of the following types:
• Herbivores—which feed on plants e.g. rabbit, insect.
• Carnivores—which feed on herbivores as secondary carnivores (e.g., frog, small fish)
or tertiary carnivores (e.g., snake, big fish), which feed on other consumers.
• Omnivores—which feed on both plants and animals e.g., humans, rats, many birds.
• Detritivores—which feed on dead organisms e.g., earth worm, crab, ants.
• a) Primary Consumers – They are the herbivores who eat directly the autotrophs /
plants. They cannot eat any animals. Ex. Grasshoppers, Rabbits, Goats.
• b) Secondary Consumers – They cannot directly eat the producers of the ecosystem,
that is the plants. They can eat only herbivores. Ex. Frogs, Jackal, Snakes
• c) Tertiary Consumers – They are carnivores in nature means they are the meat
eaters. Thus, they depend on the secondary consumer for their food. They are the top-
level carnivores. Ex. – Tigers, Lions, Vulture, Kite
• (iii) Decomposers: These are micro-organisms which break down organic matter into
inorganic compounds and in this process they derive their nutrition. They play a very
important role in converting the essential nutrients from unavailable organic form to
free inorganic form that is available for use by plants e.g., bacteria, fungi, Earthworm.
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: Various physico-chemical components of the ecosystem constitute the abiotic structure
• (i) Physical components include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind speed and direction, water availability, soil
texture etc.
• (ii) Chemical components include major essential nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2, O2, S etc. and micronutrients like Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu
etc., salts and toxic substances like pesticides. These physico-chemical factors of water, air and soil play an important role in
ecosystem functioning.
• Abiotic components are also divided as
• I) Climatic factors- Ex. Light, Temperature, Humidity, Rain etc.
• II) Edaphic factors- Ex. Soil, Organic and Inorganic components of the soil, Substratum etc.
Ecosystem functions:
food chains and food webs.
• Food chain is the sequence of eating and being eaten.
• e.g., Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
• Phytoplanktons (water-algae) → water fleas → small fish → large fish
(Tuna)
• These are known as grazing food chain—which start with green plants and
culminate with carnivores.
• Another type is detritus food chain—which starts with dead organic matter.
• e.g., Leaf litter in a forest → Fungi → bacteria
Forest Ecosystem
Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass is the total dry weight of the animals
as well as plants present in the ecosystem at any point of time. The
ecological pyramid that is framed by sequencing how much dry
weight of various creatures as per the trophic level in an
ecological system is known as a pyramid of biomass. Like
pyramid of numbers it may be upright one or inverted one. In case of
a forest and grass land ecosystem it is upright and in cases of a pond
ecosystem inverted pyramids are observed.
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Energy: The ecological pyramid which is shaped by
organizing how much energy is in various trophic levels in an
environment is known as the pyramid of energy. It is the most
important type of ecological pyramid.
• The amount of energy being transferred from the lower trophic level
towards the upper ones become less and less. Thus, longer the pyramid
in height, lesser will be the amount of energy to reach the organisms
present in the topmost trophic level.
• Only 10% of the energy is being transferred to the subsequent upper
trophic level organisms. For example, if the producers generate 1000
kilo calorie amount of energy, the primary consumers will receive 100
kcal, the secondary consumer will get 10 kcal and only 1 kcal amount
of energy will reach to the tertiary or topmost level of consumers
(Lindemann ten percent law, 1942). In this way a pattern of upright
Pyramid of Energy will be developed for all types of ecosystems found
in the Nature. This is the universal formula.
• Energy pyramid can never be an inverted one or spindle shaped found
in other types of ecological pyramid structure.
• The shape of the pyramid of energy is not affected by the size,
biomass, number or the metabolic rate of the organisms.
Ecosystem Balance
The ecosystems have a property to tolerate external disturbance or stress. This property is known as homeostasis.
Ecosystem regulations by homeostasis. On application of a stress, the negative feedback mechanisms start operating, trying to
counter the stress and regulate the balance of the system but beyond homeostatic plateau, positive feedback stars which further
accelerate the stress effects causing ecosystem imbalance.
Energy Flow in ecosystem Universal energy flow
• Energy utilization in an ecosystem occurs in two ways.
• Quantity of solar energy the plants receive from the sun for
model
photosynthesis
• Quantity of energy flow occurs from the plants to the consumers.
• This behaviour of energy transaction in an ecosystem is known as
energy flow.
• Energy flow occurs in two models within the ecosystem
• Single Channel Energy Flow Model
• Y- Shaped Energy Flow Models
Single channel energy flow model
This type of energy flow works as per the food chain of the ecosystem. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, grasses are the
producers.
• They fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produce carbohydrates as the gross productivity. It is a one-way direction
of energy flow.
• This clearly indicates that, if the food chain is longer in length then the energy reaches to the top carnivores are less and if
the food chain is a shorter one, more energy will be available to the topmost trophic level organisms.
Y-shaped energy flow model
• The Y-shaped model explains how the grazing food chain and detritus food chain connect with each other. The y-
shaped model was originally proposed by H.T Odum (1956).
• In nature besides the single chain model, another way of energy transfer is found.
• Food web shows the realistic picture of flow of energy which is more complex with more combinations.
The Y-model explains the connection between a grazing & a detritus food chain
Productivity
The amount of organic matter i.e. the food prepared by a plant is known as productivity. When it is measured at any unit time, it is
known as rate of productivity of that ecosystem.
Productivity are of following types
A. Primary Productivity
B. Secondary Productivity
C. Net Productivity
Primary Productivity: The productivity is the production capability of a plant. Thus, primary productivity is always associated with
the autotrophs or the photosynthetic organisms i.e. the green plants. Some of the microorganisms also can carry out this process and
are known as photosynthetic microorganisms. Thus, primary productivity is the rate of fixation of solar energy from the sun by the
photosynthesis activity of the organisms.
Primary Productivity are 2 types
1. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
1. Gross Primary Productivity: It is the total rate of photosynthesis or food production by a photosynthetic organism. It depends on
the chlorophyll content of a plant. Thus, it is calculated as amount of CO2 fixed per gram of chlorophyll per one hour. This can be
represented as GPP = amount of CO2 /gm Chl / hr.
2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP): We know, energy is required for each activity they do, by the living organisms. Thus, for
respiration work, plants also need energy. So, the energy what was fixed during photosynthesis is being used here. As a result, the
remaining energy after loss in the respiration utilization is known as the Net Primary Productivity. In simple words NPP = GPP –
Respiration energy
Secondary Productivity
This is related to the heterotrophs in contrast to the Primary Productivity. Secondary Productivity is the energy stored at consumer
level. Ecologist Odum (1971) prefer to use the term assimilation rather than production at this level. Secondary production is not a
fixed level of energy utilization of production rather moves from one consumer level to the other through the food chain.
Net Productivity
Net Productivity is the storage energy of the consumers. That means it is the energy which remains in the body of the consumer
after utilization in respiration or any other work done by the consumer. Thus, it can be measured as the biomass. Net productivity
can be expressed as production of carbon mg/meter2/day. It can then be calculated how much energy per/biomass of the consumer
gets in a year.
Ecological Succession
• Ecological Succession is also called as Plant Succession or Biotic succession.
• Hult (1885) used the term” succession”.
• The occurrence of relatively definite sequence of communities over a long period of time in the same area resulting
in establishment of stable community is called ecological succession. It allows new areas to be colonized and
damaged ecosystems to be recolonized, so organisms can adapt to the changes in the environment and continue to
survive.
• Primary Succession- When the succession starts from barren area such as bare rock or open water. It is called
primary succession.
• Secondary succession- Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed by fire or any
other agent. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as secondary ecological succession.
• Autogenic succession:- After succession has begun, Its vegetation itself cause its own replacement by new
communities is called Autogenic succession .
• Allogenic succession:- When the replacement of existing community is caused by any other external condition and
not by existing vegetation itself. This is called allogenic succession.
• Autotropoic succession:- It is characterized by early and continued dominance of autotrophic organism called
green plants.
• Heterotropic succession:- It is characterized by early dominance of heterotrophs such as bacteria, actinomycetes,
fungi and animal.
Process of Succession
Clements (1916) has discussed the process of succession.
1. Nudation:- Development of bare area without any form of life. The cause may be
climatic (glacier, hails), biotic (epidemic, human activities) or topographic (soil erosion,
landslide).
2. Invasion: -Successful establishment of a species in a bare area. May be by migration,
ecosis or aggregation.
3. Competition: - It involves the development of intraspecific as well as interspecific
members. Competition occurs due limited food and space.
4. Reaction: - It involves the modification of the environment through influence of living
organism.
5. Stabilization or climax:-The final terminal community become more or less stabilized
for a longer period of time is climax community.
Types of seres :-
Types of communities
1. Pioneer community :- The first community to inhibit an area is called Pioneer community
2. Climax community: - The last and stable community in an area is called Climax
community.
3. Seral Community / Transitional Community : - A seral community is an intermediate
stage of ecological succession advancing towards the climax community.
• Distribution: These are found in the high rain fall areas on either side of
the equator. Such forests are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
western coast of India, scattered in south east Asia, some parts of Africa and
south America.
Forests in India can be broadly classified into coniferous forests and broadleaved forests. In addition to this, forest is also
classified according to the kind of tree species they have which includes evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees,
mangroves, etc.
Coniferous forests are found in the high-altitude Himalayan mountain ranges. These ranges remain snow-covered for many
months of the year with the temperature dipping below zero. These forests usually have tall trees with downward sloping branches
so that the snow can slip off the branches. Coniferous forest has trees having needle-like leaves. Many trees are gymnosperms
which have cones instead of seeds. Pine and deodar trees are found in the Himalayan coniferous forest. Animal species found in
coniferous forests include wild goat, sheep and Himalayan black bear. Some rare species of animals are also found in this forest
which includes snow leopard, hangul and Himalayan brown bear.
Broadleaf forests are a category of forest further classified into evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove
forests. Evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
regions receive a high amount of rainfall during long monsoon period. Evergreen forests in southern India receives two monsoons.
Trees in evergreen forest keep shedding some leaves throughout the year instead of having a dedicated dry leafless phase as in a
deciduous forest. This is why the evergreen forest appears green throughout the year. Evergreen forests have dense canopy
because of a high number of trees are present adjacent to each other with their branches overlapping. Due to this less amount of
sunlight reaches the forest floor where some shade loving plants grow. Species richness in the evergreen forest is highest. Several
orchids and ferns are found in these forests. High diversity of mammals, reptiles, insects are found adapted to these forests. Some
of the animals found in the evergreen forest of North-eastern India, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands include
tiger, leopard, sambar, Malabar pied hornbill and tree frogs. Rare animals like Pigmy Hog and Lion tailed macaque are also found
in the evergreen forests.
Deciduous forests are found in the regions with a moderate amount of rainfall during the monsoon season. Deciduous forests are found
in central highlands and Deccan peninsula. These forests have a specific season in which trees shed their leaves. On the onset of
monsoon, they regain their leaves. Teak (Tectona grandis), Sal (Shorea robusta) and Ain (Terminalia elliptica) are some examples of trees
found in the deciduous forests of India. Animals like tiger, cheetal, barking deer, flycatchers and hornbills are also found in the deciduous
forests of India.
Thorn and scrub forests are found in the semi-arid and arid regions of India. These are regions of low and very low annual rainfall.
Here trees are distributed sparsely and are surrounded by grasslands. Xerophytic plants are found in these forests which can survive in
the scarcity of water Trees have several adaption-like small leaves, coating wax on their leaves which helps them conserve water. On the
other hand, many trees have long and deep roots which helps them access water below the ground. Tree species like Babool (Acacia
nilotica), Khejdi ( Prosopis cineraria) and Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) are a few examples of plants found in thorn forest. Animals like
Blackbuck, chinkara, sambar and monitor lizards make the fauna of the thorn forests.
Mangrove forests consist of trees and shrubs found in coastal-intertidal zones in the tropics and subtropics. All these trees grow in areas
with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. In the mangrove forests, there is a dense web of
prop roots that gives the impression of trees standing on stilts above the water. This web of prop roots allows the trees to withstand the
daily rise and fall of tides. These roots slow the speed of the tidal water, due to this sediment settle out of the water and build up muddy
water bottom. Sundarbans in West Bengal is an example of a mangrove forest in India. Mangrove forests help in stabilization of the
coastline, prevents erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The dense and complicated root system of mangrove forests
makes these forests ideal habitat for fish and other organisms.
We are continuously losing our forests. Major threats to the forest ecosystem include deforestation and forest fragmentation due to the
ever-increasing urbanization, industrialization and intensive agriculture. In addition to this, overconsumption or exploitation of forest
resources, invasive species are also some of the treats to the forest ecosystem. We can conserve the forest ecosystem by afforestation
programs, sustainable use of forest resources and making a network of protected areas
Grasslands
Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses. They occupy about 20% of the land on the earth surface. Grasslands occur in both in tropical
and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support the growth of trees. Grasslands are known by various names in different
parts of the world. Grasslands have been given different names in different continents like prairies in U.S. Midwest, pampas in South
America, steppes in central Eurasia and savannas in Africa.
Grasses are the dominating plants, with scattered drought resistant thorny trees in the tropical grasslands. Badgers, fox, ass, zebra,
antelope are found grazing on grasslands. Grasslands also support the large population of rodents, reptiles and insects.
Broadly there are two different types of grasslands tropical and temperate.
Tropical Grasslands
These occur on either side of the equator and extend to the tropics.
This vegetation grows in areas of moderate to a low amount of rainfall.
The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
They occur in eastern Africa, South America, Australia and India.
Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands
Temperate Grasslands
These are found in the mid latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents. Temperate grasslands- prairies
They occur in South Africa, Brazil, North America.
Usually, the grass here is short and nutritious.
Wild buffaloes, bison, antelopes are common in the temperate region.
Grasslands in India
The examples of grasslands in India include the Himalayan pasture belt that extends till the snowline. They are also found in
patches along the coniferous forests or broad-leaved forests. Another example is the Terai which has patches of tall grasses
interspersed with Sal forest. These grasslands are usually found in the foothills of Himalaya. Another type of grasslands is
found along the thorn forest in semi-arid plains of western India, central India and the Deccan. In addition to this, India also
has Shola grasslands which consist of patches of grasses on hill adjacent to the Shola forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiris and
Annamalai ranges.
Grasslands have been used by humans as pasturelands for their cattle. In addition to this, certain grasses are also a source of
fuelwood. They also provide habitats to the pollinators. Having said that grasslands have been degraded severely as they are
overused or exploited. Ever-increasing population along with conspicuous patterns of consumption has increased the demand
for dairy products, wool and meat. Consequently, increasing the number of cattle’s resulting in overgrazing. Similarly, the
expansion of agricultural land has also occurred at the cost of grasslands.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are the ecosystem which receives less or extremely less (less than 12cm per year) rainfall. Deserts are hot and low
rain areas suffering from water shortage and high wind velocity. They show extremes of temperature. Globally deserts
occupy about 1/7th of the earth’s surface.
Flora and fauna: Cacti, Acacia, Euphorbia and prickly pears are some of the common desert plants. Desert animals include
shrew, fox, wood rats, rabbits, camels and goat are common mammals in desert. Other prominent desert animals are, reptiles,
and burrowing rodents insects.
Brackish water ecosystems: these water bodies have salt content in between 5
to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.
Lake Ecosystem
• A lake is a some what permanent standing freshwater body that is generally
large enough in area and depth and the size and depth of lakes varies
considerably.
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are the most important nutrients in the lake. These
agents promote the growth of nutrient-rich plants and algae.
Oligotrophic lake: An oligotrophic lake is one which has a relatively low productivity due to the low nutrient content in the
lake. The waters of these lakes are usually quite clear due to the limited growth of algae in the lake. Oligotrophic lakes are
usually found in the cold regions of the world where mixing of nutrients is rare and slow due to the low temperatures of the lake
waters.
Mesotrophic lake: Lakes with an intermediate level of productivity are called mesotrophic lakes. These lakes have medium-
level nutrients and are usually clear water with submerged aquatic plants.
Eutrophic lake: Eutrophic Lakes have high levels of biological productivity and this lake support an abundance of plants due to
the rich nutrient constitution, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Initially, eutrophic lakes accelerate multiplication and growth
of Lake Fauna due to the high levels of oxygen provided by a large number of plants growing in the lake. However, when things
cross limits, plants or algal blooms overcrowd the lake and the lake fauna suffers due to the high levels of respiration by the
living vegetative matter. Eutrophication might occur naturally or due to human impact on the environment.
• Wular lake in JK is one of the biggest freshwater lakes in Asia and it was formed as a result of tectonic activity.
• Chilika Lake in Odisha is the largest saline water lake in India.
• Vembanad Lake in Kerala is the longest lake in India.
• Cholamu Lake in Sikkim is the highest lake in India.
Pond Ecosystem
A pond ecosystem is a freshwater ecosystem that can either be temporary or
permanent and consists of a wide variety of aquatic plants and animals
interacting with each other and the surrounding aquatic conditions. The pond
ecosystem falls under the category of a lentic ecosystem because the water
remains stagnant for a longer period.
The pond ecosystem exhibits three distinct zones, the littoral zone,
limnetic zone, profundal zone, and benthic zone.
•Producers: These include species of rooted, submerged, emerged, floating plants and algae. The most common filamentous algae found
in ponds is Spirogyra. Mougeotia and Zygnema are some other algae found in the
pond. Azolla, Hydrilla, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Jussiaea, etc., are a few examples of green
plants that are found in the pond ecosystem.
•Primary consumers: A large population of zooplanktons are the main primary consumers. Besides these, small herbivores such as
snails, insects, small fishes, tadpoles, and larvae of aquatic animals are the primary consumers often found in the pond.
•Secondary consumers: These include large animal species such as frogs, big fishes, water snakes, crabs, etc.
•Decomposers: These include different types of bacteria and fungi that feed upon dead and decaying parts of the aquatic species.
•Some aquatic plants help to improve the water quality by absorbing pollutants and heavy metals.
•The shoreline plants absorb nitrogen and phosphorus and therefore prevent the algal bloom and maintain the oxygen level in the
pond. Moreover, aquatic plants absorb animal wastes to reduce the nutrient availability for plants and therefore prevent the growth of
algae.
•The pond ecosystem is one of the sites for the conservation of biodiversity as different types of plants and consumers occupy different
strata in the pond and live together by interacting with each other. Ponds in mountain regions conserve the endangered species.
•Pond ecosystems contribute to the beauty of nature as they accommodate a variety of ornamental flowering plants.
•Stratification in the pond ecosystem determines the distribution of animal species in the pond. It reduces the competition among the
Stratification in the Lake/Pond Ecosystem
Regulating services: These are the services that humans obtain by the maintenance of the basic functioning of the ecosystem. It
includes purification of air and water, climate regulation, flood control, carbon storage, prevention of soil erosion, natural hazard
regulation, pollination, pest control and decomposition of waste by microbes. All these processes collectively work making the
ecosystem functional, sustainable and resilient to change which in turn supports the life of humans on this planet.
Cultural services: Humans live in nature and constantly interact with it. They change it and in turn are nature changes them.
Cultural services are the non-material benefit that contributes to the progress and cultural advancement of people. It includes the
role of ecosystems in local, national and global cultures. It also includes spiritual enrichment, intellectual development, recreation
aesthetic values and creativity born by interacting with nature like art, music, architecture.
Supporting services: These services include processes which are essential for the sustenance of the ecosystems which in turn
sustain life on the planet. It includes processes like biogeochemical cycles, photosynthesis, creation of soils and water cycle.
Supporting services are essential for the existence of provisioning, regulating and cultural services.
Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies
Ecological restoration: It is a process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been partially or completely degraded.
In simple words ecological restoration means restoring the ecosystem, to a former state or to an perfect condition.
Ecological restoration focuses on the recovery of many aspects of ecosystem which are as following.
1. Health of the ecosystem: purification of air, sequestration of carbon dioxide, filtration
of water
2. Integrity of ecosystem: Species composition and community structure
3. Sustainability: Resistance and resilience to disturbance
Rehabilitation: It mean returning of a degraded land to a fully functional ecosystem irrespective of its original state but
according to a prior landuse plan. Examples of the rehabilitation process are partial recovery of species diversity and ecological
complexity, reducing the livestock grazing from riparian zone, allowing natural growth of vegetation or restoring fluvial
processes.
Remediation: It is a process in which using physical and biological methods, chemical contaminants are cleaned from polluted
ecosystem in order to protect human and ecosystem health.
Reclamation: It is a process by which biotic function and productivity of severely damaged land is restored.
Mitigation: It is defined as restoration, rehabilitation or reclamation process to reduce the effect of the source of degradation