Unit-2

Ecosystem
• The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek words Oikos- home + logos-
study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings.
• Tansley (1935) gave term ecosystem and described it as a self-regulating group of biotic communities of species
interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
• Ecosystem is the basic structural and functional unit of the environment. Both the living and non-living component of
the nature, when interact with each other to establish a stable living community, it is called as Ecosystem. Examples of
Ecosystems: Terrestrial or land-based ecosystem, Aquatic or water-based ecosystems etc.
• Ecosystems show large variations in their size, structure, composition etc. However, all the ecosystems are
characterized by certain basic structural and functional features which are common.
• Ecosystems have basically two types of components, the biotic and abiotic, as described below:
 STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS: Different living organisms constitute the biotic
component of an ecosystem and belong to the following categories:
• (i) Producers: These are mainly producing food themselves e.g., Green plants, , Algae.
They are known as photo-autotrophs (auto = self, photo = light, troph = food). There
are some chemo-autotrophs, which are a group of bacteria, producing their food from
oxidation of certain chemicals. e.g. sulphur bacteria.

• (ii) Consumers: These organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms. They
are of the following types:
• Herbivores—which feed on plants e.g. rabbit, insect.
• Carnivores—which feed on herbivores as secondary carnivores (e.g., frog, small fish)
or tertiary carnivores (e.g., snake, big fish), which feed on other consumers.
• Omnivores—which feed on both plants and animals e.g., humans, rats, many birds.
• Detritivores—which feed on dead organisms e.g., earth worm, crab, ants.
• a) Primary Consumers – They are the herbivores who eat directly the autotrophs /
plants. They cannot eat any animals. Ex. Grasshoppers, Rabbits, Goats.
• b) Secondary Consumers – They cannot directly eat the producers of the ecosystem,
that is the plants. They can eat only herbivores. Ex. Frogs, Jackal, Snakes
• c) Tertiary Consumers – They are carnivores in nature means they are the meat
eaters. Thus, they depend on the secondary consumer for their food. They are the top-
level carnivores. Ex. – Tigers, Lions, Vulture, Kite

• (iii) Decomposers: These are micro-organisms which break down organic matter into
inorganic compounds and in this process they derive their nutrition. They play a very
important role in converting the essential nutrients from unavailable organic form to
free inorganic form that is available for use by plants e.g., bacteria, fungi, Earthworm.
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: Various physico-chemical components of the ecosystem constitute the abiotic structure
• (i) Physical components include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind speed and direction, water availability, soil
texture etc.
• (ii) Chemical components include major essential nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2, O2, S etc. and micronutrients like Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu
etc., salts and toxic substances like pesticides. These physico-chemical factors of water, air and soil play an important role in
ecosystem functioning.
• Abiotic components are also divided as
• I) Climatic factors- Ex. Light, Temperature, Humidity, Rain etc.
• II) Edaphic factors- Ex. Soil, Organic and Inorganic components of the soil, Substratum etc.
Ecosystem functions:
 food chains and food webs.
• Food chain is the sequence of eating and being eaten.
• e.g., Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
• Phytoplanktons (water-algae) → water fleas → small fish → large fish
(Tuna)

• These are known as grazing food chain—which start with green plants and
culminate with carnivores.
• Another type is detritus food chain—which starts with dead organic matter.
• e.g., Leaf litter in a forest → Fungi → bacteria

Terrestrial food Aquatic food

chain chain
 Food web
• Food chains are generally found to be
interlinked and inter-woven as a network and
known as Food Web. There are several options
of eating and being eaten in a food web. Hence
these are more stable.
• There is uni-directional flow of energy in an
ecosystem. It flows from sun and then after
being captured by primary producers (green
plants), flows through the food chain or food Terrestrial food
web, following the laws of thermodynamics. web
• At every successive step in the food-chain,
there is huge loss of about 90% of the energy
in different processes (respiration, excretion,
locomotion etc.) and only 10% moves to next
level (Ten per cent law of energy flow).
• Nutrients (Materials) in an ecosystem move in
a cyclic manner. The cycling of nutrients takes
place between the biotic and abiotic
components, hence known as biogeochemical
cycles (bio = living, geo = earth, chemical = Aquatic food
nutrients). web
Ecological Pyramid / Eltonian pyramid

 An ecological pyramid is a graphical

representation of the relationship between the
different living organisms at different trophic
levels in the form of numbers, biomass and
energy.
 Charles Elton developed the concept of the
pyramid of numbers. Later, G. Evylen
Hutchinson and Raymond Lindeman
developed the idea of the pyramid of energy
or productivity.

The ecological pyramid is mainly divided into

three parts.
1. Pyramid of Number
2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Numbers:
Pyramid of Numbers: The ecological pyramid that is shaped by organizing the number of living creatures of various
supplement levels in an ecological system is known as the pyramid of numbers. In this type of pyramid, number of organisms
are counted and accordingly respective volume to each trophic level is allotted in the pyramid. Characteristic features of pyramid
of number are.
1) Number of producers are higher in number than the consumers present in other trophic levels.
2) Number of individuals in each trophic level decrease when we go from bottom to top in a pyramid.
3) Collectively the living organisms present in each of the trophic levels are known as standing crop.
4) Normally the pyramid of number is an upright one. Ex. Grassland ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystem.
5) Sometimes inverted pyramids are also found in this case.
6) A mixed or spindle shaped pyramid is also observed in case of forest ecosystem.

Forest Ecosystem
Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass is the total dry weight of the animals
as well as plants present in the ecosystem at any point of time. The
ecological pyramid that is framed by sequencing how much dry
weight of various creatures as per the trophic level in an
ecological system is known as a pyramid of biomass. Like
pyramid of numbers it may be upright one or inverted one. In case of
a forest and grass land ecosystem it is upright and in cases of a pond
ecosystem inverted pyramids are observed.
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Energy: The ecological pyramid which is shaped by
organizing how much energy is in various trophic levels in an
environment is known as the pyramid of energy. It is the most
important type of ecological pyramid.

• The amount of energy being transferred from the lower trophic level
towards the upper ones become less and less. Thus, longer the pyramid
in height, lesser will be the amount of energy to reach the organisms
present in the topmost trophic level.
• Only 10% of the energy is being transferred to the subsequent upper
trophic level organisms. For example, if the producers generate 1000
kilo calorie amount of energy, the primary consumers will receive 100
kcal, the secondary consumer will get 10 kcal and only 1 kcal amount
of energy will reach to the tertiary or topmost level of consumers
(Lindemann ten percent law, 1942). In this way a pattern of upright
Pyramid of Energy will be developed for all types of ecosystems found
in the Nature. This is the universal formula.
• Energy pyramid can never be an inverted one or spindle shaped found
in other types of ecological pyramid structure.
• The shape of the pyramid of energy is not affected by the size,
biomass, number or the metabolic rate of the organisms.
Ecosystem Balance
The ecosystems have a property to tolerate external disturbance or stress. This property is known as homeostasis.

Ecosystem regulations by homeostasis. On application of a stress, the negative feedback mechanisms start operating, trying to
counter the stress and regulate the balance of the system but beyond homeostatic plateau, positive feedback stars which further
accelerate the stress effects causing ecosystem imbalance.
Energy Flow in ecosystem Universal energy flow
• Energy utilization in an ecosystem occurs in two ways.
• Quantity of solar energy the plants receive from the sun for
model
photosynthesis
• Quantity of energy flow occurs from the plants to the consumers.
• This behaviour of energy transaction in an ecosystem is known as
energy flow.
• Energy flow occurs in two models within the ecosystem
• Single Channel Energy Flow Model
• Y- Shaped Energy Flow Models
Single channel energy flow model
This type of energy flow works as per the food chain of the ecosystem. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, grasses are the
producers.

• They fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produce carbohydrates as the gross productivity. It is a one-way direction
of energy flow.
• This clearly indicates that, if the food chain is longer in length then the energy reaches to the top carnivores are less and if
the food chain is a shorter one, more energy will be available to the topmost trophic level organisms.
 Y-shaped energy flow model

• The Y-shaped model explains how the grazing food chain and detritus food chain connect with each other. The y-
shaped model was originally proposed by H.T Odum (1956).
• In nature besides the single chain model, another way of energy transfer is found.
• Food web shows the realistic picture of flow of energy which is more complex with more combinations.
The Y-model explains the connection between a grazing & a detritus food chain
Productivity
The amount of organic matter i.e. the food prepared by a plant is known as productivity. When it is measured at any unit time, it is
known as rate of productivity of that ecosystem.
Productivity are of following types
A. Primary Productivity
B. Secondary Productivity
C. Net Productivity

Primary Productivity: The productivity is the production capability of a plant. Thus, primary productivity is always associated with
the autotrophs or the photosynthetic organisms i.e. the green plants. Some of the microorganisms also can carry out this process and
are known as photosynthetic microorganisms. Thus, primary productivity is the rate of fixation of solar energy from the sun by the
photosynthesis activity of the organisms.
Primary Productivity are 2 types
1. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

1. Gross Primary Productivity: It is the total rate of photosynthesis or food production by a photosynthetic organism. It depends on
the chlorophyll content of a plant. Thus, it is calculated as amount of CO2 fixed per gram of chlorophyll per one hour. This can be
represented as GPP = amount of CO2 /gm Chl / hr.

2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP): We know, energy is required for each activity they do, by the living organisms. Thus, for
respiration work, plants also need energy. So, the energy what was fixed during photosynthesis is being used here. As a result, the
remaining energy after loss in the respiration utilization is known as the Net Primary Productivity. In simple words NPP = GPP –
Respiration energy
Secondary Productivity
This is related to the heterotrophs in contrast to the Primary Productivity. Secondary Productivity is the energy stored at consumer
level. Ecologist Odum (1971) prefer to use the term assimilation rather than production at this level. Secondary production is not a
fixed level of energy utilization of production rather moves from one consumer level to the other through the food chain.

Net Productivity
Net Productivity is the storage energy of the consumers. That means it is the energy which remains in the body of the consumer
after utilization in respiration or any other work done by the consumer. Thus, it can be measured as the biomass. Net productivity
can be expressed as production of carbon mg/meter2/day. It can then be calculated how much energy per/biomass of the consumer
gets in a year.
 Ecological Succession
• Ecological Succession is also called as Plant Succession or Biotic succession.
• Hult (1885) used the term” succession”.
• The occurrence of relatively definite sequence of communities over a long period of time in the same area resulting
in establishment of stable community is called ecological succession. It allows new areas to be colonized and
damaged ecosystems to be recolonized, so organisms can adapt to the changes in the environment and continue to
survive.
• Primary Succession- When the succession starts from barren area such as bare rock or open water. It is called
primary succession.
• Secondary succession- Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed by fire or any
other agent. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as secondary ecological succession.
• Autogenic succession:- After succession has begun, Its vegetation itself cause its own replacement by new
communities is called Autogenic succession .
• Allogenic succession:- When the replacement of existing community is caused by any other external condition and
not by existing vegetation itself. This is called allogenic succession.
• Autotropoic succession:- It is characterized by early and continued dominance of autotrophic organism called
green plants.
• Heterotropic succession:- It is characterized by early dominance of heterotrophs such as bacteria, actinomycetes,
fungi and animal.
Process of Succession
Clements (1916) has discussed the process of succession.

1. Nudation:- Development of bare area without any form of life. The cause may be
climatic (glacier, hails), biotic (epidemic, human activities) or topographic (soil erosion,
landslide).
2. Invasion: -Successful establishment of a species in a bare area. May be by migration,
ecosis or aggregation.
3. Competition: - It involves the development of intraspecific as well as interspecific
members. Competition occurs due limited food and space.
4. Reaction: - It involves the modification of the environment through influence of living
organism.
5. Stabilization or climax:-The final terminal community become more or less stabilized
for a longer period of time is climax community.
Types of seres :-
Types of communities

1. Pioneer community :- The first community to inhibit an area is called Pioneer community
2. Climax community: - The last and stable community in an area is called Climax
community.
3. Seral Community / Transitional Community : - A seral community is an intermediate
stage of ecological succession advancing towards the climax community.

The entire series of communities is called Sere.

Individual transitional communities are called Sere stage.
 HYDROSERE
• It is succession occurring in the aquatic environment such as small and shallow ponds, lakes, etc.
• Various stages of succession in a lake or pond are:-
1. Plankton stage:
• Phytoplanktons =>Diatoms, phytoflagellates, Cynobacteris, Green algal cells.
• Death and decomposition of organisms add large amount of organic matter and nutrients.
2. Submerged stage: When a loose layer of mud is formed on the bottom of the pond, some rooted submerged hydrophytes such as Elodia,
Hydrilla, Elodeabegin to appear on the new substratum.
3. Floating stage: The submerged vegetation starts disappearing and then the floating plants make their appearance gradually in that area. Due
to continuous interaction between plant communities and aquatic environment, the habitat becomes changed chemically as well as physically.
Important floating plants that replace the submerged vegetation are Nelumbmm, Trapa, Pistia, Nymphaea, etc.
4. Reed swamp stages: The floating plants start disappearing gradually and their places are occupied by amphibious plants which can live
successfully in aquatic as well as aerial environment. Important examples are Bothrioclova, Typha etc. The foliage leaves of such plants are
exposed much above the surface of water and roots are generally found either in mud or submerged in water.
5. Sedge Meadow stage: The filling process finally results in a marshy soil which may be too dry for the plants of pre-existing community. The
members of cyperaceae and grammeae appeared. The species of Carex ,Juncus, Themeda, etc.
6. Woodland stage: In the beginning some shrubs and later medium sized trees form open vegetation or woodland. These plants produce more
shade and absorb and transpire large quantity of water. The prominent plants of woodland community are species of Buteazon,Cornus,Populus,
etc.
7. Climax forest: After a very long time the hydrosere may lead to the development of climax vegetation, well adapted self-maintaining and
self-reproducing. In the climax forest, all types of plants are present herbs, shrubs, mosses and shade loving plants represent their own
communities. Trees are dominant and they have control over the entire vegetation. Bacteria, fungi, and other micro-organisms are more
frequently found in the climax vegetation.
 Succession of plant is followed by succession of animal
Fish> Insect, Prawn, Snail> Birds> Land animals

Community succession along a pond and along river banks.

 XEROSERE
• Xerosere involves the ecological succession on bare rock surface. The rocky habitat shows many extreme xeric conditions like very high
surface temperature, deficiency of water and absence of organic matter.
• The various stages of successions on bare area are:-
1. Crustose lichen stage: the pioneer colonisers on the bare area are crustose lichens which occur on the rock surface. Important crustose lichens
are rhizocarpon, rhinodina, graphis etc. Their spongy nature enables them absorb excess amount of water and minerals. These lichens migrate
through their spores and soridia and their migration is facilitated by wind and water. The lichens secrete carbonic acid in excess.
2. Foliose lichen stage: after accumulation of little soil and humus, the rock surface now becomes covered with xeric foliose and fructicose
lichens, like dermatocarpon, parmellia, umbilicaria, etc. When the supply of light is cut off the crustose lichens begin to die. Foliose lichens
absorb and accumulate water and minerals and check evaporation of surface water. They also secrete carbonic acid which further pulverizes or
loosens the rocks into small particles.
3. Moss stage: the existing foliose lichens start disappearing in that area. Xerophytic mosses like polytrichum, torulla, grimmia etc. Grow in the
crevices and the depressions of the rocks and become dominant. The xerophytic mosses develop rhizoids which penetrate deep into the rocky soil.
The decaying older parts of mosses form a thick mat over the rock surface, which increases the water holding capacity of soil.
4. Herbs stage: the herbaceous vegetation, mainly consists of annual herbs (eleusine, aristida) and perennial herbs (cymbopogon, heteropogon),
develops very quickly. Increased moisture content of the soil favours the growth of herbs. The roots of these plants penetrate down almost to the
level of unpulverized rock. Decaying leaves, stems, roots and other parts of the plants the form of humus and increase the water holding capacity
of the soil .
5. Shrub stage: xerophytic shrubs gradually occupy the area. Roots of shrubs also reach the surface оf unpulverized rocks and corrode sufficient
unpulverized rocks and corrode sufficient quantity of rock particles which make the soil more massive. Decaying leaves, twigs and roots of these
shrubs also enrich the soil with humus. Some important shrubs are rhus, phytocarpus, zizyphus, caparis.
6. Forest stage: the xerophytic trees invade the area which has been occupied previously by shrubs. The first trees growing in such areas are
dwarf and widely spaced. Then mesophytic trees grow densely and become dominant. In the shade of mesophytic trees some shade loving herbs
and shrubs which are well adapted to humid atmosphere also appear and they form their own communities. The climax stage established which
remains unchanged unless some major environmental changes disturb it.
 Succession of plant is followed by succession of animal
Spider and grasshopper -> Ants, Termites, Earthworm, Snails, Centipede, Millipede,
Birds, and squirrels

Biotic succession on a bare rock.

Carbon Cycle
Water cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorous cycle
Sulphur cycle
 Types of Ecosystem
A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and is capable of maintaining its
identity such as forest, grassland, an estuary, human intervention is an example of a natural ecosystem. A natural ecosystem is
totally dependent on solar energy. There are two main categories of ecosystems.
1. Terrestrial ecosystem: Ecosystems found on land e.g. forest, grasslands, deserts, tundra.
2. Aquatic ecosystem: Plants and animal community found in water bodies. These can be further classified into two sub
groups.
(i) Fresh water ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes and ponds.
(ii) Marine ecosystems, such as oceans, estuary.
Forests- Forests are large areas supporting rich growth of trees. Forest ecosystem mainly consists of community of plants,
animals and microorganism and their non-living environment functioning collectively to exchange material and energy, where
trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover forms the main component. Tropical rainforests produce 20% of the Earth's oxygen and
play a crucial role in keeping the planet a constant temperature. Depending on the climate and type of trees they are generally
grouped into: (i) Tropical rain forests (ii) Temperate deciduous forests (iii) Boreal or north coniferous forests
Tropical rain forest

• Distribution: These are found in the high rain fall areas on either side of
the equator. Such forests are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
western coast of India, scattered in south east Asia, some parts of Africa and
south America.

• Flora and fauna: Tropical rainforests occur in areas by having high

temperature and high humidity and receives above 200 cm of rainfall per
year. Soil is rich in humus. These forests have a very rich biodiversity e.g.
Brazilian tropical rain forests have more than 300 species of trees in an area
of 200 square kilometer. Trees are tall growing upto 50 to 60 m. These
forests also support epiphytes, like vines, creepers, woody creepers and
orchid etc. These forests are rich in tree dwelling animals such as Mammals
(Monkeys, Bats, Kangaroos, Tigers, Foxes), Birds: (African Gray Parrot,
Eagles, Hummingbirds), Insects (Ants, Spiders, Butterflies, Grasshoppers,
Caterpillars), Reptiles and Amphibians: (Snakes, Frogs, Geckos, Komodo
Dragons, Chemeleon).
Temperate deciduous forests
• Distribution: They occur mostly in northwest, central and eastern Europe, eastern
north America, north China, Korea, Japan, far eastern Russia and Australia. Trees of
deciduous forests shed their leaves in autumn and a new foliage grows in spring.
• Climate: These forests occur in the areas of moderate climatic conditions such as
temperature ranging but 10 to 20°C with a 6 month long winter and an annual rainfall
between 75 to 150 cm. They have its brown soils which are rich in nutrients.
• Flora and fauna: Common trees are oak, beach, heath, chest nut, birch, pine.
Prominent grazers include deer, bison and rodents. Black bear, raccoons, wild cat,
wolves, fox and skunks are the omnivores found in these forests. Hibernation or winter
sleep during winter is a common feature of animals found in these forests. Invertebrate
fauna comprises green flies, aphids, certain moths and butterflies.

Boreal or north coniferous forests

• Distribution: Coniferous forests are also known as ‘Taiga’. They extend as a
continuous belt across north America and north Eurasia below the arctic tundra. There
is no counterpart of these forests in southern hemisphere as there is no land at this
latitude. Climate is cold with long, harsh winter, with mean annual temperature below
0°C. The soils are acidic and poor in nutrients.
• Flora and fauna: Coniferous forests are characterized by evergreen, drought resistant
and woody. Conifers (gymnosprerms) e.g. spruce, fir and pine trees which bear naked
seeds in cones. The animals found in these forests, are red squirrel, deer, goat, mule,
moose etc. The carnivores which feed upon them are timber wolves, lynxes, bear.
Some common birds are crossbill, thrushes, warblers, flycatchers, robin and sparrow.
Forest Types in India

Forests in India can be broadly classified into coniferous forests and broadleaved forests. In addition to this, forest is also
classified according to the kind of tree species they have which includes evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees,
mangroves, etc.

Coniferous forests are found in the high-altitude Himalayan mountain ranges. These ranges remain snow-covered for many
months of the year with the temperature dipping below zero. These forests usually have tall trees with downward sloping branches
so that the snow can slip off the branches. Coniferous forest has trees having needle-like leaves. Many trees are gymnosperms
which have cones instead of seeds. Pine and deodar trees are found in the Himalayan coniferous forest. Animal species found in
coniferous forests include wild goat, sheep and Himalayan black bear. Some rare species of animals are also found in this forest
which includes snow leopard, hangul and Himalayan brown bear.

Broadleaf forests are a category of forest further classified into evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove
forests. Evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
regions receive a high amount of rainfall during long monsoon period. Evergreen forests in southern India receives two monsoons.
Trees in evergreen forest keep shedding some leaves throughout the year instead of having a dedicated dry leafless phase as in a
deciduous forest. This is why the evergreen forest appears green throughout the year. Evergreen forests have dense canopy
because of a high number of trees are present adjacent to each other with their branches overlapping. Due to this less amount of
sunlight reaches the forest floor where some shade loving plants grow. Species richness in the evergreen forest is highest. Several
orchids and ferns are found in these forests. High diversity of mammals, reptiles, insects are found adapted to these forests. Some
of the animals found in the evergreen forest of North-eastern India, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands include
tiger, leopard, sambar, Malabar pied hornbill and tree frogs. Rare animals like Pigmy Hog and Lion tailed macaque are also found
in the evergreen forests.
Deciduous forests are found in the regions with a moderate amount of rainfall during the monsoon season. Deciduous forests are found
in central highlands and Deccan peninsula. These forests have a specific season in which trees shed their leaves. On the onset of
monsoon, they regain their leaves. Teak (Tectona grandis), Sal (Shorea robusta) and Ain (Terminalia elliptica) are some examples of trees
found in the deciduous forests of India. Animals like tiger, cheetal, barking deer, flycatchers and hornbills are also found in the deciduous
forests of India.

Thorn and scrub forests are found in the semi-arid and arid regions of India. These are regions of low and very low annual rainfall.
Here trees are distributed sparsely and are surrounded by grasslands. Xerophytic plants are found in these forests which can survive in
the scarcity of water Trees have several adaption-like small leaves, coating wax on their leaves which helps them conserve water. On the
other hand, many trees have long and deep roots which helps them access water below the ground. Tree species like Babool (Acacia
nilotica), Khejdi ( Prosopis cineraria) and Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) are a few examples of plants found in thorn forest. Animals like
Blackbuck, chinkara, sambar and monitor lizards make the fauna of the thorn forests.

Mangrove forests consist of trees and shrubs found in coastal-intertidal zones in the tropics and subtropics. All these trees grow in areas
with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. In the mangrove forests, there is a dense web of
prop roots that gives the impression of trees standing on stilts above the water. This web of prop roots allows the trees to withstand the
daily rise and fall of tides. These roots slow the speed of the tidal water, due to this sediment settle out of the water and build up muddy
water bottom. Sundarbans in West Bengal is an example of a mangrove forest in India. Mangrove forests help in stabilization of the
coastline, prevents erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The dense and complicated root system of mangrove forests
makes these forests ideal habitat for fish and other organisms.

We are continuously losing our forests. Major threats to the forest ecosystem include deforestation and forest fragmentation due to the
ever-increasing urbanization, industrialization and intensive agriculture. In addition to this, overconsumption or exploitation of forest
resources, invasive species are also some of the treats to the forest ecosystem. We can conserve the forest ecosystem by afforestation
programs, sustainable use of forest resources and making a network of protected areas
Grasslands
Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses. They occupy about 20% of the land on the earth surface. Grasslands occur in both in tropical
and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support the growth of trees. Grasslands are known by various names in different
parts of the world. Grasslands have been given different names in different continents like prairies in U.S. Midwest, pampas in South
America, steppes in central Eurasia and savannas in Africa.
Grasses are the dominating plants, with scattered drought resistant thorny trees in the tropical grasslands. Badgers, fox, ass, zebra,
antelope are found grazing on grasslands. Grasslands also support the large population of rodents, reptiles and insects.

Broadly there are two different types of grasslands tropical and temperate.
Tropical Grasslands
These occur on either side of the equator and extend to the tropics.
This vegetation grows in areas of moderate to a low amount of rainfall.
The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
They occur in eastern Africa, South America, Australia and India.
Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands

Temperate Grasslands
These are found in the mid latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents. Temperate grasslands- prairies
They occur in South Africa, Brazil, North America.
Usually, the grass here is short and nutritious.
Wild buffaloes, bison, antelopes are common in the temperate region.
Grasslands in India

The examples of grasslands in India include the Himalayan pasture belt that extends till the snowline. They are also found in
patches along the coniferous forests or broad-leaved forests. Another example is the Terai which has patches of tall grasses
interspersed with Sal forest. These grasslands are usually found in the foothills of Himalaya. Another type of grasslands is
found along the thorn forest in semi-arid plains of western India, central India and the Deccan. In addition to this, India also
has Shola grasslands which consist of patches of grasses on hill adjacent to the Shola forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiris and
Annamalai ranges.

•Perennial grasses are the dominant plant community.

•There are semi-arid grasslands in Western India, parts of Central India, and the Deccan Plateau.
•In some regions, grasslands also support a variety of other herbaceous plants like sedges, legumes and members of the
sunflower family.
•Grasslands support numerous herbivores, from minute insects to very large mammals. Rats, mice, rodents, deer, elephants,
dogs, buffalo, tigers, lions, ferrets are some common mammals of grasslands.
•In northeast India, the one-horned rhinoceros is amongst the threatened animal of grassland in this region.

Grasslands have been used by humans as pasturelands for their cattle. In addition to this, certain grasses are also a source of
fuelwood. They also provide habitats to the pollinators. Having said that grasslands have been degraded severely as they are
overused or exploited. Ever-increasing population along with conspicuous patterns of consumption has increased the demand
for dairy products, wool and meat. Consequently, increasing the number of cattle’s resulting in overgrazing. Similarly, the
expansion of agricultural land has also occurred at the cost of grasslands.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are the ecosystem which receives less or extremely less (less than 12cm per year) rainfall. Deserts are hot and low
rain areas suffering from water shortage and high wind velocity. They show extremes of temperature. Globally deserts
occupy about 1/7th of the earth’s surface.

Flora and fauna: Cacti, Acacia, Euphorbia and prickly pears are some of the common desert plants. Desert animals include
shrew, fox, wood rats, rabbits, camels and goat are common mammals in desert. Other prominent desert animals are, reptiles,
and burrowing rodents insects.

Adaptations in Desert plants

(i) These plants conserve water by following methods:
(ii) They are mostly shrubs.
(iii) Leaves absent or reduced in size.
(iv) Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.
(v) In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for COLD DESERT - GOBI
photosynthesis.
(vi) Root system well developed spread over large area.

HOT DESERT - SAHARA

 Deserts in India
• Deserts and semi-arid regions in India are found in western India and Deccan Plateau.
• The climate in these vast tracts is extremely dry.
• The Thar desert of Rajasthan is the example of a typical desert in India which has sand dunes.
• Rainfall in these areas is sporadic. Sparse grasses and some shrubs grow in these arid regions.
• In the adjacent semi-arid regions some species of shrubs and trees like Babool (Acacia nilotica) and khair
( Senegalia catechu) are found.
• In addition to the Thar desert, India has two more desert ecosystems. Cold desert is found in Ladakh, which is
situated in the high plateau of Himalaya.
• On the other hand, highly specialized arid regions are found in the Great and Little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
During the summers these regions have conditions similar to a desert but during the monsoon, these regions get
converted into salt marshes because they are low lying areas adjacent to a sea. In terms of bird diversity Greater
and lesser flamingos are found in Great Rann of Kutch. Similarly, Little Rann of Kutch is the only region where
the wild ass is found in India.
• highly specialized insects and reptiles are found in the desert and semi-arid regions. These regions are home to
several species of rare animals desert cat, desert fox, Indian wolf and birds like the Great Indian Bustard and the
Florican.
Tundra Ecosystem
The word tundra means a “barren land”. Tundra ecosystems are found in extreme northern latitudes where snow melts
seasonally. Winters in arctic tundra are long and severe on the other hand, summers or growing season is short.
Precipitation is also poor in the tundra ecosystem and mostly occurs in summers.
Tundra ecosystems are characterized by low species richness and low primary productivity. The dominant vegetation is
tundra include mosses, lichens, grasses and grass-like sedges. Some of the animals found in tundra includes lemmings,
voles, weasels, arctic foxes and snowy owls, reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare, caribous and squirrel.
Oil and natural gas exploration and military use is harming the tundra ecosystem. In addition to this, climate change is
posing a serious threat to the tundra ecosystem. As the temperature is rising, causing the permafrost to melt resulting in
replacement of tundra vegetation by coniferous trees.

There are two types of tundra- arctic and alpine.

Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt below the polar ice
cap and above the tree line in the northern hemisphere. It
occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European
Russia, Siberia and island group of arctic ocean. On the
south pole, Anatarctica tundra in the south pole is very small
since most of it is covered by ocean .
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line.
Since mountains are found at all latitudes therefore alpine
tundra shows day and night temperature variations.

Arctic and Alpine Tundra

•Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral (near the seashore) forest ecosystem. These are mostly evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low
lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical and subtropical
regions.
•Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and the trees may vary in height from 8 to 20 m. They protect the shoreline from the effect of
cyclones and tsunamis. They are breeding and spawning ground for many commercially important fishes.
•Since mangroves are located between the land and sea, they represent the best example of ecotone.
•Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system
and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action.
•They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud. They produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the
respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.
•Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. They require high solar radiation to
filter saline water through their roots. This explains why mangroves are confined to only tropical and sub-tropical coastal waters.
•Mangroves occur in a variety of configurations. Some species (e.g. Rhizophora) send arching prop roots down into the water. While other
(e.g. Avicennia) send vertical “Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud. Adventitious roots which emerged from the main trunk of a tree
above ground level are called stilt roots.
•In India, mangroves of Sundarbans and mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa).
Aquatic Ecosystem
Freshwater ecosystems: water on land which is continuously cycling and has
low salt content (always less than 5 ppt) is known as fresh water.
•There are two types of freshwater ecosystems:
1) Static or still water (Lentic) ecosystems, e.g. pond, lake, bogs and swamps.
2) Running water (Lotic) ecosystems, e.g. springs, mountain brooks, streams
and rivers.

Marine ecosystems: the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or

above that of seawater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g. shallow seas and open ocean.

Brackish water ecosystems: these water bodies have salt content in between 5
to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.
Lake Ecosystem
• A lake is a some what permanent standing freshwater body that is generally
large enough in area and depth and the size and depth of lakes varies
considerably.
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are the most important nutrients in the lake. These
agents promote the growth of nutrient-rich plants and algae.

Lake ecosystem can be divided commonly into three zones.

• The first is the littoral zone which is the shallow zone close to the shore. This
is where the rooted wetland plants are noticed. The open water zone (or
photic zone) and the deep water zone (or aphotic zone) are the two zones
that make up the offshore.Sunlight supports photosynthetic algae and the
organisms that feed on them in the open water zone.Because there is no
sunshine in the deep water zone, the food web relies on detritus from the
littoral and photic zones.
Biodiversity of lake
• Mosses, ferns, reeds, rushes, and cattails are some of the plants that thrive
along the shoreline. Floating plants like water lilies and water
hyacinths thrive further from the coast. Waterbugs, beetles, and spiders
glide and scurry across or just beneath the surface. Snails, shrimp, crayfish,
worms, frogs, and dragonflies are among the small animals that live among
the plants. The lake birds are ducks, Swans, geese, loons, kingfishers,
herons, and bald eagles.
• Both ponds and lakes play a crucial role in the conservation of water and
biodiversity. Pollution from industries and agricultural field are
degrading these ecosystems.
Lake Stratification Epilimnion: The upper stratum of lake , which
usually has the highest dissolved oxygen
concentration, more or less uniformly warm,
Spring: At this point the water column is nearly isothermal, i.e., all the circulating, and fairly turbulent water.
water is of uniform temperature and density. Hence, the strong spring Metalimnion: It is the transitional stratum of
winds cause considerable stirring, which results in a complete mixing of marked thermal change between the epilimnion and
water, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients from the lake surface to the lake hypolimnion. The middle layer of the lake has
bottom, a phenomenon known as the spring overturn or spring turnover thermocline which is the plane or surface of
maximum rate of decrease of temperature in the
Winter: During winter the coldest water forms ice at 0°C (32°F) and floats at
metalimnion
the surface. The water at increasing depth below the ice is progressively Hypolimnion: The lower stratum of lake water
warmer and denser. The heaviest water, at the bottom of the lake, has a winter characterized more dense, cooler, and relatively
temperature of 4°C and throughout winter the water remains relatively stable. quiet water.
Summer: Unless the lake is very clear and permits photosynthesis, the
hypolimnion frequently becomes depleted of oxygen in summer because of
the biological oxygen demand of bacterial decomposers, the reduced
photosynthetic activity, and the minimal mixing with upper waters as a result
of density differences.
Autumn: At the end of thermal stratification the surface waters of the
epilimnion gradually cool as a result of conduction, evaporation and
convection. Now the lake attains temperature uniformity from top to bottom.
Because the water is now also of uniform density, it becomes well mixed by
wind and wave action, a phenomenon known as the fall turnover. As a result,
the nutrients, dissolved oxygen, and plankton become uniformly distributed.
 Types of lake as per trophic state
The trophic state of the lake is classified into three namely;

Oligotrophic lake: An oligotrophic lake is one which has a relatively low productivity due to the low nutrient content in the
lake. The waters of these lakes are usually quite clear due to the limited growth of algae in the lake. Oligotrophic lakes are
usually found in the cold regions of the world where mixing of nutrients is rare and slow due to the low temperatures of the lake
waters.
Mesotrophic lake: Lakes with an intermediate level of productivity are called mesotrophic lakes. These lakes have medium-
level nutrients and are usually clear water with submerged aquatic plants.
Eutrophic lake: Eutrophic Lakes have high levels of biological productivity and this lake support an abundance of plants due to
the rich nutrient constitution, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Initially, eutrophic lakes accelerate multiplication and growth
of Lake Fauna due to the high levels of oxygen provided by a large number of plants growing in the lake. However, when things
cross limits, plants or algal blooms overcrowd the lake and the lake fauna suffers due to the high levels of respiration by the
living vegetative matter. Eutrophication might occur naturally or due to human impact on the environment.

• Wular lake in JK is one of the biggest freshwater lakes in Asia and it was formed as a result of tectonic activity.
• Chilika Lake in Odisha is the largest saline water lake in India.
• Vembanad Lake in Kerala is the longest lake in India.
• Cholamu Lake in Sikkim is the highest lake in India.
Pond Ecosystem
A pond ecosystem is a freshwater ecosystem that can either be temporary or
permanent and consists of a wide variety of aquatic plants and animals
interacting with each other and the surrounding aquatic conditions. The pond
ecosystem falls under the category of a lentic ecosystem because the water
remains stagnant for a longer period.
The pond ecosystem exhibits three distinct zones, the littoral zone,
limnetic zone, profundal zone, and benthic zone.

Abiotic Components of the Pond Ecosystem

Abiotic components are the non-living components of an ecosystem that

matter for the aquatic species’ survival. There are the following main abiotic
components of a pond ecosystem:
Light: Light serves as a main abiotic component required for the
photosynthetic activities of the phytoplankton.
Temperature: As the depth of the pond increases, the temperature of the
water gradually decreases due to the gradual decrease in the light penetration.
Dissolved oxygen: The amount of dissolved oxygen is maximum in the
shallow water and gradually decreases while moving from the surface to the
depth of the pond.
Biotic Components of the Pond Ecosystem
Biotic components are living components. A wide variety of living components are found in the pond ecosystem can be discussed as
follows:

•Producers: These include species of rooted, submerged, emerged, floating plants and algae. The most common filamentous algae found
in ponds is Spirogyra. Mougeotia and Zygnema are some other algae found in the
pond. Azolla, Hydrilla, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Jussiaea, etc., are a few examples of green
plants that are found in the pond ecosystem.
•Primary consumers: A large population of zooplanktons are the main primary consumers. Besides these, small herbivores such as
snails, insects, small fishes, tadpoles, and larvae of aquatic animals are the primary consumers often found in the pond.
•Secondary consumers: These include large animal species such as frogs, big fishes, water snakes, crabs, etc.
•Decomposers: These include different types of bacteria and fungi that feed upon dead and decaying parts of the aquatic species.

Importance of Pond Ecosystem

•The importance of the pond ecosystem can be discussed as follows:

•Some aquatic plants help to improve the water quality by absorbing pollutants and heavy metals.
•The shoreline plants absorb nitrogen and phosphorus and therefore prevent the algal bloom and maintain the oxygen level in the
pond. Moreover, aquatic plants absorb animal wastes to reduce the nutrient availability for plants and therefore prevent the growth of
algae.
•The pond ecosystem is one of the sites for the conservation of biodiversity as different types of plants and consumers occupy different
strata in the pond and live together by interacting with each other. Ponds in mountain regions conserve the endangered species.
•Pond ecosystems contribute to the beauty of nature as they accommodate a variety of ornamental flowering plants.
•Stratification in the pond ecosystem determines the distribution of animal species in the pond. It reduces the competition among the
Stratification in the Lake/Pond Ecosystem

Different factors such as distance from the shore, penetration of

light, depth of water, plant and animal species, etc. determine the
following zones found in the pond/lake ecosystem:

•Littoral zone: It is the zone closer to the shore. It contains

shallow water and allows easy penetration of light. Rooted plant
species occupy it. Animal species include reeds, crawfish, snails,
insects, etc.
•Limnetic zone: The limnetic zone refers to the open water of the
pond with an effective penetration of light. This zone is dominated
by phytoplankton. Animal species mainly include small fishes and
insects.
•Profundal zone: The region of a pond below the limnetic zone is
called a profound zone with no effective light penetration. Some
amphibians and small turtles occupy it.
•Benthic zone: The bottom zone of a pond is benthic and is
occupied by a community of decomposers. The decomposers are
called benthos.
Estuaries
• Estuaries are an example of a brackish water ecosystem where salinity levels are intermediate i.e more than the freshwater
ecosystem and less than the saltwater ecosystems.
• Estuaries, where the rivers enter the ocean. It is a partially enclosed coastal area of brackish water (salinity varies between 0-
35 ppt) with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.
• Estuaries have both plankton and detritus-based food webs. Most fisheries are directly or indirectly dependent on this
ecosystem. Estuaries are home to unique plant and animal communities that have adapted to brackish water—a mixture of
fresh water draining from the land and salty seawater.
• They are the most productive water bodies in the world because of the mixing of freshwater and saline water zone where
marine organisms of both the ecosystems meet. Many animals rely on estuaries for food, places to breed, and migration
stopovers.
• Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons and deltas.
• Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, grasslands etc. have far greater productivity
compared to natural ecosystems like a forest ecosystem, ocean ecosystem, pond ecosystem, riverine ecosystem, desert
ecosystem etc. This is because of the wide-ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems being present in the ecotone.
Streams and Rivers
• Streams and rivers are the example of lotic water ecosystems which means running water ecosystem. A stream is significantly
smaller in size than the river. These ecosystems are open systems, exchanging nutrients and energy with larger areas than
lentic ecosystems. In these ecosystem currents is an important ecological factor.
• Two zones can be identified in these ecosystems which are rapid zone and pool zone. In the rapid zone, the current is fast
which cleans the silt and other material from the bottom making it firm and hard. On the other hand, in the pool zone speed of
the current is slow, water is deep resulting in the deposition of sand and silt. Different kinds of organisms are adapted to these
two zones.
• Rivers originate from glaciers on the mountains and carry the sediments enter the plain areas making the soil fertile with
sediments before ending into the oceans.
• Rivers provide water for drinking, domestic purpose, industries and agriculture and power generation to mankind. Pollution
originating from the sewage drains (Urban areas), effluent drains (Industries) and agriculture fields are polluting the
river ecosystems.
Ocean Ecosystem
• Indian ocean, Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea are examples of ocean or
marine ecosystems in India.
• Seventy percent of the earth's surface is covered by oceans. These
ecosystems are extremely deep.
• Oceans have salinity levels much higher (35 parts per 1000 parts of water
(by weight) or 3.5%) than the freshwater ecosystems (0.5%).
• Oceans waters continuously move horizontally by the action of strong
winds such as trade winds is called waves. On the other hand, the ocean
water also rises and falls by the action of tides.
• Ocean ecosystem consists of several communities like littoral, marine
sandy beaches and marine mud flat communities.
• In addition to this, Marine surface Pelagic communities and Deep open
benthos communities are also found in oceans. Great diversity of
organisms is found in each of these communities.
• Ocean ecosystems are a source of marine food for many human
communities. In addition to these oceans are also used for travel and
transportation of goods.
• Ocean ecosystems are also threatened by water pollution from sewage
drains and industrial drains. Also, waste dumped into the rivers reaches
the oceans threating marine life. In addition to this, many ocean
communities like coral reefs are getting degraded due to climate change.
Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are direct and indirect benefits humans get from nature. These are essential for the maintenance of the basic
functioning of earth and consequently supports life on this planet. Changes in ecosystem services can significantly affect the
quality of human life on earth.

These services can be categorized into four main types

Provisioning services: It includes material and products which we get from nature like fruits, vegetables, crops, honey, fish,
marine food, livestock and other food material, freshwater, fuelwood, timber for furniture and construction, fibre, medicines, oil,
natural gas, plant material for clothes and genetic resources.

Regulating services: These are the services that humans obtain by the maintenance of the basic functioning of the ecosystem. It
includes purification of air and water, climate regulation, flood control, carbon storage, prevention of soil erosion, natural hazard
regulation, pollination, pest control and decomposition of waste by microbes. All these processes collectively work making the
ecosystem functional, sustainable and resilient to change which in turn supports the life of humans on this planet.

Cultural services: Humans live in nature and constantly interact with it. They change it and in turn are nature changes them.
Cultural services are the non-material benefit that contributes to the progress and cultural advancement of people. It includes the
role of ecosystems in local, national and global cultures. It also includes spiritual enrichment, intellectual development, recreation
aesthetic values and creativity born by interacting with nature like art, music, architecture.

Supporting services: These services include processes which are essential for the sustenance of the ecosystems which in turn
sustain life on the planet. It includes processes like biogeochemical cycles, photosynthesis, creation of soils and water cycle.
Supporting services are essential for the existence of provisioning, regulating and cultural services.
Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies
Ecological restoration: It is a process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been partially or completely degraded.
In simple words ecological restoration means restoring the ecosystem, to a former state or to an perfect condition.

Ecological restoration focuses on the recovery of many aspects of ecosystem which are as following.
1. Health of the ecosystem: purification of air, sequestration of carbon dioxide, filtration
of water
2. Integrity of ecosystem: Species composition and community structure
3. Sustainability: Resistance and resilience to disturbance

Rehabilitation: It mean returning of a degraded land to a fully functional ecosystem irrespective of its original state but
according to a prior landuse plan. Examples of the rehabilitation process are partial recovery of species diversity and ecological
complexity, reducing the livestock grazing from riparian zone, allowing natural growth of vegetation or restoring fluvial
processes.

Remediation: It is a process in which using physical and biological methods, chemical contaminants are cleaned from polluted
ecosystem in order to protect human and ecosystem health.

Reclamation: It is a process by which biotic function and productivity of severely damaged land is restored.

Mitigation: It is defined as restoration, rehabilitation or reclamation process to reduce the effect of the source of degradation