INTRODUCTION

• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.

• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a
vector quantity.

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Three prime coordinate systems:
 rectangular T(x, y,
z, t)
 cylindrical T(r, ,
z, t)
 spherical T(r, , ,
t).

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Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

• Steady implies no change

with time at any point within
the medium
• Transient implies variation
with time or time
dependence
• In the special case of
variation with time but not
with position, the temperature
of the medium changes
uniformly with time. Such
heat transfer systems are
called lumped systems.

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Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
 one-dimensional
 two dimensional
 three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-
dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-
dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in
different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one
direction only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the
variation of temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are
negligible or zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases,
varies mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of
temperature in the third direction (and thus heat transfer in that
direction) is negligible.

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• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction (say,
in the x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction as:

Heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature, and thus the
temperature gradient is negative
when heat is conducted in the
positive x -direction.

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• The heat flux vector at a point P on
the surface of the figure must be
perpendicular to the surface, and it
must point in the direction of
decreasing temperature
• If n is the normal of the
isothermal surface at point P, the rate
of heat conduction at that point can be
expressed by Fourier’s law as

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• Examples:
 electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R, Heat
 fuel elements of nuclear reactors, Generation
 exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as
position within the medium.

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ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the wall of a house,
the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate at the bottom of a pressing
iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element, an electrical
resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a spherical metal ball that is
being quenched or tempered.
Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be approximated as
being one-dimensional since heat conduction through these geometries is
dominant in one direction and negligible in other directions.
Next we develop the onedimensional heat conduction equation in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

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 Heat Conduction
Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
(2-6)

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13
Heat
Conduction
Equation in a
Long Cylinder

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15
Heat Conduction Equation
in a Sphere

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HEAT GENERATION IN A SOLID
Many practical heat transfer applications involve
the conversion of some form of energy into
thermal energy in the medium.
Such mediums are said to involve internal heat
generation, which manifests itself as a rise in
temperature throughout the medium.
Some examples of heat generation are
- resistance heating in wires,
- exothermic chemical reactions in a solid, and
- nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods
where electrical, chemical, and nuclear energies
are converted to heat, respectively.
Heat generation in an electrical wire of outer
radius ro and length L can be expressed as

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The quantities of major interest in a medium with
heat generation are the surface temperature Ts and
the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in the
medium in steady operation.

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UNSTEADY STATE HEAT
CONDUCTION
LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS
•There are many problems encountered in engineering
practice where the temperature varies with respect to
time. Such systems are known as unsteady state heating
or cooling.
•In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave
like a “lump” whose interior temperatures remains
essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer
process.
•The temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function
of time only T(t)-known as lumped system analysis-
systems that can be considered uniform in
temperature.

A small copper ball

Consider a small hot copper ball coming out of an oven. can be modeled as
Measurements indicate the temperature of the copper ball a lumped system,
changes with time, but it does not change with position at any but a roast beef
given time. Thus the temperature of the ball remains uniform cannot.
at all times, and we can talk about the temperature of the ball
with no reference to a specific location.

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 LUMPED-HEAT-CAPACITY SYSTEM:
Uniform temperature through the solid

Thermal Network for the single-capacity

Equation: system
Hot

steel
ball
Boundary Conditions:
Cold water q

Solution:

Time constant: Thermal resistance:

Thermal capacitance:

Applicability:
Criteria for Lumped System
Analysis
Characteristic
length/ dimension

Biot number

Lumped system analysis is

applicable if

When Bi  0.1, the temperatures within the body relative

to the surroundings (i.e., T −T) remain within 5 percent
of each other.

Assumption on Lumped Capacitance

method

Surface convection resistance is large

compared with the internal
conduction resistance
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Example:

A person is found dead at 5pm in a room

whose temperature is 20oC. The temperature
of the body is measured to be 25oC when
found and the heat transfer coefficient is
estimaed to be 8 W/m 2 .K. Modeling the body
as a 30 cm diameter, 1.70 m long cylinder and
using the lumped system analysis as a rough
approximation, estimate the time death of that
person.
Assumptions
1 The body can be modeled as a 30-cm-diameter, 1.70-m-long cylinder.
2 The thermal properties of the body and the heat transfer coefficient are constant.
3 The radiation effects are negligible.
4 The person was healthy(!) when he or she died with a body temperature of 37°C.

Properties
The average human body is 72 percent water by mass, and thus we can assume the body to
have the properties of water at the average temperature of (37 + 25)/2 = 31°C; k = 0.617 W/m · °C,
ρ = 996 kg/m3, and cp = 4178 J/kg·°C (Table A–9).

Analysis The characteristic length and the Biot number are

Example
:
A steel ball (c = 0.46kJ/Kg.K, k=35W/mK, = 7800 kg/m3)
, 5 cm in diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of
450 0C is suddenly placed in a controlled environment in
which the temperature is maintained at 100 0C. The
convection heat transfer coefficient is 10W/m2.K. Calculate
the time required for the ball to obtain a temperature of 150
0C.
TRY
THIS..
1) A copper plate of 2 mm thick is heated up to 400oC and then quenched into
water at 20oC. Find the time required for the plate to reach the temperature of
40oC. Assume the following data:

h= 80 W/m2.K
Plate dimensions = 30 cm x 30 cm.
Cp =0.4 kJ/ kg.K
= 8800 kg/m3

2) One thousand spheres made of copper of diameter 10 mm are annealed in the

annealing furnace
Initial temperature of the spheres = 20oC. Temperature of the annealing
furnace = 400oC. The properties of copper are given as

h= 30 W/m2.K
Cp =0.4 kJ/ kg.K
= 8200 kg/m3
Find the time required for the spheres to reach the temperature of 300oC
TRANSIENT HEAT
C O N D U C T I O N IN SEMI-INFINITE
SOLIDS Semi-infinite solid: An idealized
body that has a single plane surface
and extends to infinity in all
directions.
The earth can be considered to be a
semi-infinite medium in
determining the variation of
temperature near its surface.
A thick wall can be modeled as a
semi-infinite medium if all we are
interested in is the variation of
temperature in the region near one
Schematic of a semi-infinite body. of the surfaces, and the other
surface is too far to have any
For short periods of time, most bodies impact on the region of interest
can be modeled as semi-infinite solids during the time of observation.
since heat does not have sufficient time
to penetrate deep into the body.
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 TRANSIENT HEAT FLOW IN A SEMI-INFINITE SOLID

Differential Equation: Boundary Conditions:

Solution:
Analytical solution for the case of constant temperature Ts on the
surface

Error
function
C omplementary
error function
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Error function is a standard
mathematical function, just like the
sine and cosine functions, whose value
varies between 0 and 1.

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Exampl
A highway made of asphalt is initially at a
e
uniform temperature of 55o C. Suddenly the
highway surface temperature is
reduced to 25oC by rain. Determine the
temperature at the depth of 3 cm from
the highway surface and the heat flux
transferred from the highway after 60
minutes. Assume the highway surface
temperature is maintained at 25oC.