Chapter 2

The Relational Model of Data

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 1

 Objectives
Understand what is the relational model and
database design basing relational model.
Conceptualize data using the relational model.
Understand what basic relational algebra
operators under set semantics.
Express queries using relational algebra.

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 2

 Contents

2.1 An Overview of Data Models

2.2 Basics of the Relational Model
2.3 An Algebraic Query Language

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 3

 2.1 An Overview of Data Models
 Data model: a collection of concepts for describing
data, including 3 parts:
 Structure of the data
 Ex: arrays or objects
 Operations on the data
 Queries and modification on data
 Constraints on the data
 Limitations on the data
 What is the difference between Data modeling and
Data Model?

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 4

 2.1 An Overview of Data Models
 The Evolution of Data Models

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 5

2.2 Basics of the Relational Model

Relational model is known as a relation (sometimes

called a table) as a two-dimensional structure
composed of intersecting rows and columns
 Each row in a relation is called a tuple.
 Each column represents an attribute.

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 2.2 Basics of the Relational Model

 A relation is made up from 2 parts:

 Schema: specifies name of relation, name of attributes
and domain/type of one’s.
 Ex: Student(StudentID: string, Name: string, Registered: int,
CounsellorNo: int, Region: int)
 Instance: a table with rows and columns
 Rows ~ cardinality; columns ~ degree/arity

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2.2 Basics of the Relational Model

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 8

2.2 Basics of the Relational Model
Database schema: a set of schemas for the
relations of a database
An example of DB schema:

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 2.2 Basics of the Relational Model
 Keys:
 Keys are important because they are used to ensure that each
row in a table is uniquely identifiable.
 They are also used to establish relationships
among tables and to ensure the integrity of the data.
 A key consists of one or more attributes that determine other
attributes.
Dependencies:
 The role of a key is based on the concept of determination
 Functional dependence
◦ determinant
◦ dependent

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 2.2 Basics of the Relational Model
Type of Keys:
 Super key: An attribute or combination of attributes that uniquely
identifies each row in a table
 Candidate key: A candidate key is a minimal superkey
 Primary key: A candidate key selected to uniquely identify all other
attribute values in any given row; cannot contain null entries
 Foreign key An attribute or combination of attributes in one table
whose values must either match t
 A foreign key (fK) is an attribute or combination of attributes in one
table whose values must either match the primary key in another
table or be null
 A secondary key is defined as a key that is used strictly for data
retrieval purposes

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 2.2 Basics of the Relational Model
Entity integrity
 Use PK
 The primary key has two requirements:
◦ (1) all of the values in the primary key must be unique and
◦ (2) no key attribute in the primary key can contain a null.
Referential integrity
 Use fk key
 Every foreign key entry must either be null or a valid value in
the primary key of the related table.

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 2.3 An Algebraic Query Language

Relational Algebra
 An algebra consists of operators and atomic
operands
 Relational algebra is an example of an algebra,
its atomic operands are
 Variables that stand for relations
 Constants, which are finite relations
 Relational algebra is a set of operations on
relations
 Operations operate on one or more relations to
create new relation
THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 13
 2.3 An Algebraic Query Language
Relational algebra fall into four classes
 Set operations – union(giao), intersection(hợp),
difference(hiệu or loại trừ)
 Selection and projection (chọn và chiếu)
 Cartesian product and joins
 Rename

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 2.3 An Algebraic Query Language
 Set operations R and S must be ‘type
compatible’
Union  The same number of
R  S = { t | t  R  t  S} attributes
 The domain of
Intersection corresponding
R  S = { t | t  R  t  S} attributes must be
compatible
Difference
R \ S = { t | t  R  t  S}
Intersection can be expressed
in terms of set difference
R  S = R \ (R \ S)
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2.3 An Algebraic Query Language

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 16

Set operations- Example

name address gender birthdate

Carrie Fisher 123 Maple St., Holywood F 9/9/99
Mark Hamill 456 Oak Rd., Brentwood M 8/8/88

Relation R

name address gender birthdate

Carrie Fisher 123 Maple St., Holywood F 9/9/99
Harrison Ford 789 Palm Dr., Beverly Hills M 8/8/88

Relation S

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 Set operations- Example

RS name address gender birthdate

Carrie Fisher 123 Maple St., Holywood F 9/9/99
Mark Hamill 456 Oak Rd., Brentwood M 8/8/88
Harrison Ford 789 Palm Dr., Beverly Hills M 8/8/88

RS name address gender birthdate

Carrie Fisher 123 Maple St., Holywood F 9/9/99

R\S name address gender birthdate

Mark Hamill 456 Oak Rd., Brentwood M 8/8/88

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 18

 Selection and projection
 Selection
- R1 := σC (R2) with C illustrated conditions
 - ex:  <C1>( < C2> ( R)) =  <C2> ( < C1> ( R)) =  <C1> AND < C2>
Movies
title year length genre
Gone With the Wind 1939 231 Drama
Star Wars 1977 124 Scifi
Wayne’s World 1992 95 Comedy

σlength100(Movies)
title year length genre
Gone With the Wind 1939 231 Drama
Star Wars 1977 124 Scifi

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 Selection and projection
 Projection S := πA1,A2,…,An (R)
 A1,A2,…,An are attributes of R
 S relation schema S(A1,A2,…,An)
Movies title year length genre
Star Wars 1977 124 Scifi
Galaxy Quest 1999 104 Comedy
Wayne’s World 1992 95 Comedy

title,year,length(Movies) genre(Movies)
title year length genre
Star Wars 1977 124 Scifi
Galaxy Quest 1999 104 Comedy
Wayne’s World 1992 95

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 Cartesian product and joins

Cartesian product R3 := R1 Χ R2

Relation R Relation S Cartesian Product R X S

A B B C D A R.B S.B C D
1 2 2 5 6 1 2 2 5 6
3 4 4 7 8 1 2 4 7 8
9 10 11 1 2 9 10 11
3 4 2 5 6
3 4 4 7 8
3 4 9 10 11

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 21

 Cartesian product and joins
 theta joins R3 := R1 ⋈<join condition> R2

A B C B C D A U.B U.C V.B V.C D

1 2 3 2 3 4 1 2 3 2 3 4
6 7 8 2 3 5 1 2 3 2 3 5
9 7 8 7 8 10 1 2 3 7 8 10
6 7 8 7 8 10
Relation U Relation V
9 7 8 7 8 10

Figure 2.17: Result of U ⋈ A<D V

A U.B U.C V.B V.C D

1 2 3 7 8 10
Result of U ⋈ A<D AND U.BV.B V

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 Cartesian product and joins
Natural join R3 := R1 ⋈ R2

Relation R Relation S Natural Join R ⋈ S

A B B C D A B C D
1 2 2 5 6 1 2 5 6
3 4 4 7 8 3 4 7 8
9 10 11

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 23

 Rename

The  operation gives a new schema to a relation

ρS(A1,…,An)(R) makes S be a relation with attributes A1,
…,An and the same tuples as R
Simplified notation: S:=R (A1,A2,…,An)
Relation R Relation S RX S(X,C,D) (S)
A B B C D A B X C D
1 2 2 5 6 1 2 2 5 6
3 4 4 7 8 1 2 4 7 8
9 10 11 1 2 9 10 11
3 4 2 5 6
3 4 4 7 8
3 4 9 10 11

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 Relational Expression
 How we need relational expression
 Relational algebra allows us to form expressions
 Relational expression is constructed by applying
operations to the result of other operations
 Expressions can be presented as expression
tree

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The role of relational algebra in a DBMS

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 Relational Expression
Example: What are the titles and years of
movies made by Fox that are at least 100
minutes long?
 (1) Select those Movies tuples that have length
 100
 (2) Select those Movies tuples that have
studioName=‘Fox’
 (3) Compute the intersection of (1) and (2)
 (4) Project the relation from (3) onto attributes
title and year

THE RELATIONAL MODEL OF DATA 27

 Relational Expression

title,year

length>=100 studioName=‘Fox’

Movies Movies

Figure 2.18: Expression tree for a relational algebra expression

title,year(length100 (Movies)  studioName=‘Fox’ (Movies))

title,year(length100 AND studioName=‘Fox’ (Movies))

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 More exercises

Example
Section relation

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 Union Operation

Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2017

semester, or in the Spring 2018 semester, or in both
course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2017 (section)) 

course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2018 (section))

The result of this expression, shown in the next

slide

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 Union Operation

section relation
result

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 Set-Intersection Operation

Example: Find the set of all courses taught

in both the Fall 2017 and the Spring 2018
semesters.
course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2017 (section)) 
course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2018 (section))
Result:

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 Set Difference Operation

Example: to find all courses taught in the

Fall 2017 semester, but not in the Spring
2018 semester
course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2017 (section)) −
course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2018 (section))
Result:

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 Equivalent Queries
There is more than one way to write a query in relational
algebra.
Example: Find information about courses taught by instructors
in the Physics department with salary greater than 90,000
Query 1
 dept_name=“Physics”  salary > 90,000 (instructor)
Query 2
 dept_name=“Physics” ( salary > 90.000 (instructor))

The two queries are not identical; they are, however, equivalent
-- they give the same result on any database.

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 Equivalent Queries


35
 Exercises
Example: Customer
Ex1:

Query 1: List customers whose cred_lim is greater than £500.

Query 2: List customers whose cred_lim is greater than £500
and lives in London.
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 Exercises sid bid day
Reserves 22 101 10/10/11
Ex2 58 103 11/12/11
sid sname rating age
bid bname color
22 Jesly 7 45.0 101 Interlake Blue
31 Mishail 8 55.5 102 Interlake Red
58 Raj 10 35.0 103 Clipper Green
sailors 104 Marine Red
Boats
1.Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103
2.Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat
3.Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green boat
4.Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green boat
5. Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all boats
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