CAR 66

Module 8A
BASIC AERODYNAMICS

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 Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, student should be able to:
 Describe Aerodynamics as it relates the action (and
reaction) of bodies in a moving stream of air.
 Describe the composition of the air and the changes
that affect the interaction of a solid body passing
through the air.
 Define terminologies associated with Aerodynamics.
 Describe the various aspects of theory of flight the
various methods employed to provide stability to the
flight of an aircraft

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 Mercury Manometer

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 Altimeter

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 Mean Aerodynamic Chord

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 Conservation Of Mass
mass in = mass out

ρ1 A1V1 = Ρ2a2v2

As flow is virtually incompressible at low speeds then ρ1 =

ρ2. The equation now reads
A1V1 = A2V2

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 Conservation Of Mass

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 Conservation Of Mass

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 Boundary Layer

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 Boundary Layer

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 Vortices
C-130 Hercules or C-27 Spartan
demonstrating high angle of attack
with propellers creating a blown
wing effect.

Visible helical vortices off propeller

tips, that it dips down as it passes
over the flaps. This shows how
blowing the wing surface with
Propeller wash makes airflow stick
to the wings even at high angles of
attack.
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 Maintaining level Flight

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 CD vs. CL for Two Low Drag Aerofoils
The ‘bucket’ shape in the drag curve
represents the conditions where the
desired laminar boundary layer
occurs, giving low drag.

For efficient cruising, the wing section

must operate in the bucket region.

Thick cambered section gives a

greater maximum CL and a wider low-
drag bucket.

Thin symmetrical section produces a

lower minimum drag coefficient.

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 Theory of Flight

Effect of Flaps and Slats

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 Aerodynamics

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 Aerodynamics

Airfoil Types

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Dihedral angle - The upward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis

Anhedral angle - The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis

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 Interaction of Couple Forces

Lift/Weight and Thrust/Drag pitching moments

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 Steady State Flight

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 Steady State Flight
Maximum level
flying speed

Minimum controllable
steady flight
speed

Best Rate of Climb

(ROC)

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 Maximum Endurance and
Maximum Range

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 Forces in Climb

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 Axes of an Aircraft

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 Forces in Descent
Whenever an aircraft is flying such that the power required is larger than
the power available, it will descend rather than climb

Forward motion is maintained by

gravity pulling the aircraft in the
inclined path.

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 Forces in Glide
When an airplane is gliding, it is under the influence of the force of gravity to force
it to earth rather then the use of the engine.

Forward motion is maintained by gravity pulling

the aircraft in the inclined path.

In a glide, when there is no

engine thrust, the forces
that keep it in equilibrium
now comprise of lift, drag
and weight.

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 Forces in a Steady Climb

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 Centripetal Force

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 Centripetal Force

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 Centripetal Force
Lift = L
LVC = L cosΦ

Φ = Bank Angle

HVC = L sinΦ

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 Theory of Flight

Lift Spoilers

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 Theory of Flight

Example of Secondary Flight Controls

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 Theory of Flight

Adverse Aileron Yaw

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 Theory of Flight

Methods used to Overcome Adverse Yaw

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 LOAD FACTOR
n = Load Factor n = 1/cosΦ

L = nW or n = L/W

L cosΦ = 1 x W

L = 1/cosΦ x W
Stall speed in a turn at a New stalling speed (VSN)
certain angle of bank is
equal to the square root = load factor (n) x basic stall speed (VS)
of n times the basic stall
speed.

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 Effect of Weight on Stall Speeds

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 FLIGHT MANOUEVERING
ENVELOPES (V-n DIAGRAMS)

To the left of the area would mean a stall and to the right, would result in
an over-speed, causing possible airframe damage.
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 LIFT AUGMENTATION

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 High Lift Devices

• Increase lift
• Reduce the stalling speed.
• Reduce the landing speed (since drag is also increased
with large angles of trailing edge flap deployment.)

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 Leading Edge Devices

Krueger Flap
Drooped Leading Edge Flaps

• Present the wing at a more favorable angle

• Delay separation of laminar air flow at high angles of attack
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 Flaperons

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 SIDESLIP

As the aircraft is
sideslipping, dihedral
results in the dropped
wing meeting the
revised relative airflow
at a greater angle of
attack than the upper
wing.

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 Keel Surfaces

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 Effect of ‘Keel’ Area

These surfaces will present areas at right angles to any sideslip. If they are high
above the centre of gravity, it will tend to restore the aircraft to an even ‘keel’.

If the side surfaces are low the pressure on them will tend towards lateral
instability.

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 Typical Aircraft Flight Controls

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 Aileron Controls

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 Roll Spoiler Controls

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 Elevator Controls

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 Stabilator Controls

Stabilator Controls

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 Variable Incidence Stabiliser

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 Rudder Controls

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 Ruddervator Controls

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 Elevons
Controls with a dual-
function (elevators and
ailerons) called elevons,
provide both pitch and roll,
by moving symmetrically in
pitch or asymmetrically in
roll via a mixer unit, when
the control column or
control wheel are operated
on the flight deck..

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 Trim Tabs

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 Trim Tabs
Trim tabs move the primary control
surface aerodynamically in the
opposite direction to the movement
of the tab.
Example: To correct an aircraft Fixed Trim Tab
‘nose down’ out of trim condition,
the elevator tab is moved down, A simple section of sheet metal attached
resulting in the elevator moving up, to the trailing edge of a control surface.
the tail of the aircraft moving down,
so that the nose comes up, It is adjusted on the ground by simply
correcting the fault bending it up or down, to a position
resulting in zero control forces during
cruise

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 Trim Tabs

Controllable Trim Tab

A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight deck, with

its position being transmitted back to a flight deck indicator
showing trim units, left and right of neutral.

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 Servo Tabs

Servo tabs (flight tabs) are positioned on the trailing edge of the
primary control surface and connected directly to the flight deck
control inputs.
They act as a form of ‘power booster’, since pilot effort is only
required to deflect the relatively small area of the servo tab into the
air stream.

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 Balance Tabs

The flight deck controls are connected to the primary

control surface whereas the balance tab, hinged to the
trailing edge of the primary surface, is connected to
the fixed aerofoil.

Tends to maintain the tab at the same relative angle to

the stabiliser when the pilot moves the elevator.

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 Anti-Balance Tabs

Anti-balance tabs operate in a similar way aerodynamically as

balance tabs but with a reverse effect.

It is connected so that the tab moves, relative to and in the same

direction as, the primary control surface.

Adds a loading to the pilot effort, making it slightly heavier and thus
providing ‘feel’, to prevent the possibility of over-stressing the airframe
structure
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 Mass Balancing

• Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is moved in line with,
or slightly in front of, the hinge line.

• Mass balance is achieved by adding high density weights, either within the leading
edge of the surface itself or externally, ahead of the hinge line.

• Weights, normally made from lead or depleted uranium, and is closely controlled
and calculated to ensure that the exact balance is obtained
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 Mass Balancing

Integral Mass Weights

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 Aerodynamic Balancing

Horn Balance

In order to overcome the high stick forces on larger aircraft at higher

speeds, the surfaces themselves are used to lighten the forces.
This is referred to as Aerodynamic Balancing and the three principal ways
of achieving it are: horn balance, inset hinge and pressure panels.

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 Inset Hinge Balance

Similar to and has the same effect as the horn balance. Instead of
having a forward projection at one or both ends of the control
surface, the hinges are set back so that the area forward of the
hinge line, which projects into the air flow when the control
surface is moved from neutral, is spread evenly along its whole
length.

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 Aerodynamic Balance Panel

The panel is fitted between the leading edge of the aileron, ahead of the
hinge and the rear face of the wing.

When the aileron is deflected upwards (downwards) from neutral, the high
velocity, low pressure air passing over the lower (upper) gap decreases the air
pressure under (above) the balance panel and pulls it down (up).

The force on the balance panel is proportional to airspeed and control surface
deflection and assists the pilot in moving the controls accordingly.
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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

Three Types of Motion

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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

Damping Action During Pitch

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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

Longitudinal Oscillatory Motion – The ‘Phugoid’

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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

Damping Action in Roll

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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

Oscillatory Roll and Yaw Motions of ‘Dutch Roll’

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 Flight Stability and Dynamics

Yaw and Roll Motions in a Spin

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