METAL FORMING

INTRODUCTION:
•Metal forming processes, also known as mechanical working processes, are
primary shaping processes in which a mass of metal or alloy is subjected to
mechanical forces;
•By mechanical working processes, the given shape and size of a machine part
can be achieved with great economy in material and time;
• Metal forming is possible in case of such metals or alloys which are
sufficiently malleable and ductile;
•Mechanical working requires that the material may undergo “plastic
deformation” during its processing;
• Frequently, work piece material is not sufficiently malleable or ductile at
ordinary room temperature, but may become so when heated. Thus we have
both hot and cold metal forming operations.
•Metal forming is a general term for a large group, that includes a wide variety
of manufacturing processes;
• Metal forming processes are characteristic in that the metal being processed is
plastically deformed to shape it into a desired geometry;
 Cont’d
• In order to plastically deform a metal, a force must be applied that will
exceed the yield strength of the material;
• When low amounts of stress are applied to a metal it will change its
geometry slightly, in correspondence to the force that is exerted;
• Basically it will compress, stretch, and/or bend a small amount;
• The magnitude of the amount will be directly proportional to the force
applied;
• Also the material will return to its original geometry once the force is
released then releasing it, and having it go back to its original shape. This is
called elastic deformation.;
• Once the stress on a metal increases past a certain point, it no longer
deforms elastically, but starts to undergo plastic deformation;
• The .002 offset convention is usually used to determine the yield point,
which is taken for practical purposes as the stress level where plastic
deformation, (yielding), begins to occur.
 Cont’d
• In plastic deformation, the geometric change in the material is no longer
directly proportional to stress and geometric changes remain after the stress
is released; meaning that the material does not recover its shape;
• The actual level of stress applied to a metal where elastic deformation turns
to plastic deformation is called the proportional limit, and is often
difficult to determine exactly.
 Cont’d
Stress:
• Stress is "force per unit area" - the ratio of applied force F to cross section
area -defined as "force per area".
• Tensile stress - stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the material - acts
normal to the stressed area
• compressive stress - stress that tends to compress or shorten the material -
acts normal to the stressed area
• shearing stress - stress that tends to shear the material - acts in plane to the
stressed area at right-angles to compressive or tensile stress
 Cont’d

Tensile or Compressive Stress - Normal Stress

• Tensile or compressive stress normal to the plane is usually denoted
"normal stress" or "direct stress" and can be expressed as
• σ = Fn / A, where
• σ = normal stress ((Pa) N/m2)
• Fn = normal component force (N)
• A = area (m2)
 Shear Stress

• Stress parallel to the plane is usually denoted "shear stress" and can be
expressed as
• τ = Fp / A
where
τ = shear stress ((Pa) N/m2)
Fp = parallel component force (N)
A = area (m2)
Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress" and can be
expressed as :ε = dl / lo , = σ / E ,where
dl = change of length (m)
lo = initial length (m)
ε = unit less measure of engineering strain
E = Young's modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) (N/m2 (Pa))
**Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an
object.
Two dimensional stress analysis and three dimensional stress analysis
• Stress–strain analysis (or stress analysis) is methods to determine the stresses and
strains in materials and structures subjected to forces or loads;
• stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that neighboring particles
of a continuous material exert on each other, while strain is the measure of the
deformation of the material;.
• Stress analysis is a primary task in the design of structures of all sizes;
• Stress analysis is also used in the maintenance of structures, and to investigate the
causes of structural failures.
• Typically, the input data for stress analysis are a geometrical description of the
structure, the properties of the materials used for its parts, how the parts are joined, and
the maximum or typical forces that are expected to be applied to each point of the
structure;
• The output data is typically a quantitative description of the stress over all those parts
and joints, and the deformation (strain) caused by those stresses;
• The analysis may consider forces that vary with time, such as engine vibrations or the
load of moving vehicles. In that case, the stresses and deformations will also be
functions of time and space
• Stress analysis is often a tool rather than a goal in itself; the ultimate goal being the
design of structures and artifacts that can withstand a specified load, using the
minimum amount of material (or satisfying some other optimality criterion);
 Cont’d
• It can be seen by the stress-strain graph that once the yield point of a metal
is reached and it is deforming plastically, higher levels of stress are needed
to continue its deformation;
• The metal actually gets stronger, the more it is deformed plastically. This
is called strain hardening or work hardening.;
• Strain hardening is a very important factor in metal forming processes;
• Strain hardening is often a problem that must be overcome, but many
times strain hardening, when used correctly, is a vital part of the
manufacturing process in the production of stronger parts.
Relation between True stress and Engineering stress
•When a ductile material is subjected to tensile stress, beyond a certain stress,
the cross sectional area of the material decreases at a particular position in the
material; i.e. a construction develops at a particular position. This is called
necking;
• The area of the specimen at the neck changes continuously as the load is
increased;
 Cont’d
• The true stress at any time of loading, is the force divided by the
instantaneous cross sectional area A, at the instant of time (at the neck); i.e.
• True stress (σT) = F/Ai
• The engineering stress, on the other hand, is the force divided by the
original area of cross-section AO; i.e.
Engineering stress (σ) = F/Ao
RELATION BETWEEN ENGINEERING STRAIN AND TRUE STRAIN
• Engineering Strain- It is change in length upon initial length;
• True Strain- It is change in length upon instantaneous length;
• Engineering Strain is used in stress-strain graph .
The true strain is defined by True strain (εT) = ln (Li/Lo) ,
Where li is the instantaneous length of the specimen and lo is the original
length.
The Engineering strain is given by ε = (Li-Lo)/Lo
• Relation between engineering strain ε and true strain εT :
ε = Li/Lo -1 => Li/Lo = ε + 1
ln (Li/Lo) = ln (ε + 1) => εT = ln (ε + 1)
 Cont’d
Relation between engineering stress σ and true stress σT :
• Assuming that there is no volume change during deformation AoLo
= AiLi
• Ai = Ao (Lo/Li) so that σT = F/Ai = (F×Li)/(Ao×Lo) and
therefore
• σT = σ(ε + 1)
• Deformation processes have been designed to exploit the plasticity
of engineering materials
• Plasticity is the ability of a material to flow as a solid without
deterioration of properties
• Deformation processes require a large amount of force
• Processes include bulk flow, simple shearing, or compound bending
 Free body diagram

A cylindrical body subjected

to tensile load

a. Stress strain curve for brittle

materials(ideal behavior) and b.
with slight ductility
Stress –strain curve
1: True elastic limit
2: Proportionality limit
3: Elastic limit
4: Offset yield strength
Using this construction, any stress can be plotted as a
point in 3D stress space.

For example, the uniaxial stress where σ1 = σ;

σ2 = σ3= 0, plots as a point on the σ1axis.
States of Stress
 THEORY OF PLASTICITY

• The classical theory of plasticity is concerned with materials which initially

deform elastically, but which deform plastically upon reaching a yield stress;
• In metals and other crystalline materials the occurrence of plastic
deformations at the micro-scale level is due to the motion of dislocations and
the migration of grain boundaries on the micro-level.;
• In sands and other granular materials plastic flow is due both to the
irreversible rearrangement of individual particles and to the irreversible
crushing of individual particles;
• Similarly, compression of bone to high stress levels will lead to particle
crushing;
• The deformation of micro-voids and the development of micro-cracks is
also an important cause of plastic deformations in materials such as rocks;
• Metal plastic deformation is the model issue for plastic theory;
• There are two broad groups of metal plasticity problem interest ;
• The first involves relatively small plastic strains, often of the same order
as the elastic strains which occur;
 Cont’d

• Analysis of problems involving small plastic strains allows one to design

structures optimally, so that they will not fail when in service, but at the
same time are not stronger than they really need to be. In this sense,
plasticity is seen as a material failure.
• The second type of problem involves very large strains and
deformations, so large that the elastic strains can be disregarded. These
problems occur in the analysis of metals manufacturing and forming
processes, which can involve extrusion, drawing, forging, rolling and so
on. In these latter-type problems, a simplified model known as perfect
plasticity is usually employed and use is made of special limit theorems
which hold for such models;
• Plastic deformations are normally rate independent, that is, the stresses
induced are independent of the rate of deformation (or rate of loading);
 Work done in deformation processing
•The plastic strain energy during deformation of a material is defined as
energy stored in the material when it gets plastically deformed;
• The work done during the deformation is stored as strain energy;
• For plastic deformation under uniaxial deformation, it is given by the
expression: dW = Force X change in length of the specimen = Stress X Initial
Area X Strain X Initial length;
• This can be written as: Strain energy per unit volume = stress X strain
incrémenté du = σdε
This upon integration between zero strain and a finite plastic strain ε, gives:

For tri-axial stress, the plastic work per unit volume is given as:
 Cont’d
• This energy represents the minimum energy required for deformation
without friction, redundant deformation etc;
• In reality, deformations happen with friction at work piece-tool interface;
• Further, there is in- homogeneous deformation due to friction. Such
inhomogeneous deformation leads to additional shear deformation;
• This is called redundant deformation because shearing is not a part of the
desirable shape change of the material;
• Work is involved in shearing material. This work is known as redundant
work.
 Deformation zone geometry

• Bulk deformation of materials happen generally within converging die

shapes;
• The small region of the die through which the metal is subjected to plastic
deformation is called deformation zone;
• Geometry or shape of the deformation zone affects the redundant
deformation work, and hence the total forming force;
• Deformation zone geometry also affects the residual stress, internal defects
during forming;
• Deformation zone geometry is defined by the parameter Δ. This parameter
is defined as ratio of thickness or height of deformation zone to contact
length of deformation zone.
• Δ = h / L For extrusion it can be shown that h = (ho + hf)/2sinα and L = (ho -
hf )/2Sinα. This factor increases with increasing die angle and decreases
with reduction;
• Redundant strain is expressed by a parameter φ, which is a function of Δ.
• φ = 1 + Δ/4 for plane strain deformation As deformation zone geometry
increases, redundant strain increases. This leads to increase in redundant
work.
•the deformation pressure increases with increase in deformation zone
geometry, due to increase in redundant work;
•Smaller h/L value, lower is forming pressure – in the absence of friction;
 Cont’d
• Effect of friction increases in smaller h/L cases;
• High Δ leads to high residual stress in the formed part;
• The total energy required during forming can be now written as: utotal =
uideal + ufriction + uredundant
• Forming efficiency is now defined as η = Uideal / Uotal;
• Rolling process has a high efficiency of 75 to 95% due to its low redundant
deformation and smaller deformation zone geometry. Whereas, processes
with high deformation zone geometry, such as forging and extrusion have
low efficiency, 30 to 65%.
Friction in metal forming:
• Surface asperities on two surfaces in contact get interlocked with each
other;
• When a surface tends to slide against another stationary surface, say a die
surface, there is a shear stress induced at interface which opposes the flow
of material. This condition is called sliding friction;
• Condition of sliding friction or sticking friction can arise at the interface
between the work piece and die/tool in forming operationsfriction.
 Cont’d
• Sliding friction arises due to surface shear stress opposing the metal
flow;
• Friction is undesirable as it increases the deformation work required,
leads to non-homogeneous deformation of material, causes tool wear,
causes residual stress in the product and may lead to cracking of surface;
• Coefficients of friction in forming processes are quiet high;
• If coefficient of friction becomes very high it leads to a situation called
sticking friction; In this case, the surface shear stress exceeds shear yield
strength of material, the two surfaces adhere to each other. Metal beneath
the surface undergoes shear deformation.
 Cont’d
• Theoretical forming pressure without friction is: ρ = σf[flow stress]. With sliding friction,
having coefficient of Coulomb friction μ = τ/ ρ, the forming pressure increases exponentially
along the interface, as given below for a disc under forging:
• ρ = σf(exp2μ/h(a-r)), where h is height of billet, a is radius of the cylindrical billet;
• As a result of friction, forming pressure rises exponentially, forming a friction hill in the
lateral direction;
• Friction factor m is sometimes used in place of coefficient of friction.
m = τ / k , where k is shear yield strength.
• m is independent of normal pressure at interface and it is easy to measure ;
• m is preferred in analysis of friction– especially in hot working;
• Lubrication is necessary in order to reduce friction in metal forming;
• For cold forming operations, fats, fatty acids, mineral oils, soap emulsions are generally used;
• For hot forming, glass, graphite, mineral oils can be used as lubricants;
• The coefficient of friction μ or friction factor m can be measured using the ring compression
test.
 Elements of Theory of plasticity

• The theory of plasticity deals with the behavior of materials in the region
of strain beyond which Hooke's law is no longer valid;
• in the plastic region of strain, there is no simple relationship between
stress and strain as there is for elastic deformation;
• elastic deformation depends only on the initial and final states of stress
and is independent of the loading path, but for plastic deformation the
plastic strain depends not only on the final load but also on the path by
which it was reached.
• The theory of plasticity is concerned with a number of different types of
problems;
• From the viewpoint of design, plasticity is concerned with predicting the
maximum load which can be applied to a body without causing excessive
yielding;
• The yield criterion^ must be expressed in terms of stress in such a way that
it is valid for all states of stress;
• Another aspect of plasticity is concerned with acquiring a better
understanding of the mechanism of the plastic deformation of metals;
 Cont’d
• On reloading the curve will generally bend over as the stress approaches the
original value of stress from which it was unloaded;
• With a little additional plastic strain, the stress-strain curve becomes a
continuation of what it would have been had no unloading taken place;
• The hysteresis behavior resulting from unloading and loading from a plastic
strain is generally neglected in plasticity theories;
• A true stress-strain curve is frequently called a flow curve because it gives
the stress required to cause the metal to flow plastically to any given strain;
• The most common is a power expression of the form :-
Where K is the stress at e = 1.0 and n is the strain-hardening coefficient, is the
slope of a log-log plot . This equation can be valid only from the beginning of
plastic flow to the maximum load at which the specimen begins to neck down.
 a b

Typical true stress-strain curve for ductile curve

 Cont’d
• The effect of metallurgical variables, crystal structure, and lattice
imperfections on the deformation behavior are of chief concern.

The Flow curve:

•The stress-strain curve obtained by uniaxial loading, as in the ordinary tension
test, is of fundamental interest in plasticity when the curve is plotted in terms of
true stress a- and true strain e;
•True stress is given by the load divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional
area of the specimen;
•. The true stress-strain curve for a typical ductile metal, such as aluminium,
is illustrated in the figure1.;
• Hooke's law is followed up to some yield Stress;
• (The value of o-q will depend upon the accuracy with which strain is
measured.) Beyond the metal deforms plastically;
• Most metals strain-harden in this region, so that increases in strain require
higher values of stress than the initial yield stress;
• Generally the stress-strain curve on unloading from a plastic strain will not be
exactly linear and parallel to the elastic portion of the curve(fig2);
 Flow stress:

• Flow stress is the stress required to sustain a certain plastic strain on the
material;
• Flow stress can be determined form simple uniaxial tensile test,
homogeneous compression test, plane strain compression test or torsion
test;
• Flow stress of material being formed, affects the ability of material to
undergo deformation;
• Factors such as strain rate, temperature, affect the flow stress of materials;
• A simple power law expression for flow stress of a material which does
not show anisotropy can be expressed as: ϭ=kԑn ,where n is known as
strain hardening exponent.
• Higher strain hardening exponent values enhance the flow stress.
Similarly, flow stress is enhanced with increase in strain rate during a
plastic deformation process;
• Effect of strain rate on flow stress becomes more pronounced at higher
temperatures;
• AT higher temperatures [hot working], strain hardening may not have
effect on flow stress.
 Cont’d
• During cold working effect of strain on flow stress cannot be neglected; In
such cases, average flow stress can be determined between two given
strains;
• In hot forming, temperatures of working are above recrystallization
temperature. Therefore, the grains of the metal get elongated along direction
normal to applied force, giving raise to anisotropy;
• During recovery process, locked up dislocations get released;
• Residual stresses are reduced. Recrystallization of new grains can happen
when the metal gets heated above recrystallization temperature;
• Secondary grain growth may follow primary recrystallization;
• In hot working, metal may get softened after hot deformation process;
• Recrystallized grain size affects the flow stress of material;
• A general expression for flow stress, encompassing temperature, strain,
strain rate, recrystallization has been given in the form:
 Cont’d
• n is strain hardening exponent, m is strain rate sensitivity exponent, T is
temperature;
• Materials are subjected to complex states of stresses during forming;
• Stress required for forming, yield or flow stress therefore depends on
several factors, such as strain, strain rate, temperature etc;
• From the uniaxial tensile test, one can understand material behaviour
considerably;
• Form the tensile test data, one can determine flow stress, though this
method has limitations due to localized deformation called necking;
• Flow curve is the stress-strain curve for a material in the plastic range. It
describes material behavior in metal forming;
• From flow curve, we can determine the flow stress as:
The average flow stress is given as:
where e is maximum strain during deformation process and n is strain
hardening exponent.
Yield criteria for ductile metals:
• A yield criterion is a hypothesis defining the limit of elasticity in a
material and the onset of plastic deformation under any possible
combination of stresses.
There are several possible yield criteria. ;
two types of yield criterion will be discussed relevant to the description of
yield in metals;
**To help understanding of combinations of stresses, it is useful to
introduce the idea of principal stress space; The orthogonal principal stress
axes are not necessarily related to orthogonal crystal axes.
The yield criteria limit the elastic region. It is a mathematical expression to
define the combination of component of stress such that when it reaches
material no more behaves elastically;
 Cont’d

• Yield criterion gives the onset plastic deformation. In other word if a state of
stress satisfies yield criterion, we can say that plastification may start;
• It is assumed that initial yielding depends upon only on state of stress and
not on how the stress is reached;
• We can assume that there exist a function called yield function such that
f(σij ) called yield function such that material is elastic if f(σij ) <0; Or if
f(σij = and f(σij ) <0;
• Where f(σij ) =0 defines the yield surface in stress space and f(σij ) =0
indicates unloading;
• As the yield criterion does not depends upon the path of loading, it does not
tell anything about deformation;
• If the state of stress is already satisfied f(σij )=0 it tells us only the
plastifiaction has just started or taken place. But it does not tell whether
plastic deformation has taken place or not;
• The yield function gives us the information regarding loading.
 Cont’d
• Material behavior is plastic if f(σij )=0 or f(σij )>=0
• uniaxial loading, plastic flow begins at the yield stress, and it is to be
expected that yielding under a situation of combined stresses is related to
some particular combination of the principal stresses;
• A yield criterion can be expressed in the general form but there is at present
no theoretical way of calculating the relationship between the stress
components to correlate yielding in a three-dimensional state of stress with
yielding in the uniaxial tension test;
• The yielding criteria are therefore essentially empirical relationships. At
present, there are two generally accepted theories for predicting the onset of
yielding in ductile metals.
Commonly used Yield Criteria
• The yield criteria of materials limit the elastic domain during loading where
as the failure criteria gives the maximum stress that can be applied;
• We use the yield criteria for metals alloys and failure criteria for geo
material like soil and concrete;
• Some of the commonly used yield criteria are :- Von Mises yield criteria and
Tresca yield criteria
 Von Misses & Tresca yield criteria
• von mises criteria in terms of principal stresses as

In terms of components of stress tensor, von Mises yield criteria can be written
as
 Tresca yield criteria
• According to the tresca yield criteria,yielding of material begin to occur
when maximum shearing stress at a point reaches a critical value.
• If are the principal stresses arranged in descending order, we can write
Tresca criterion as σ1, σ2, σ3 we can write tresca criterion as ;-

where KT is the material dependent parameter determined experimentally

If σy be the yield stress ,the maximum shear is σ2/2.Tresca condition can
be written as | σ1- σ3|= σy or in terms ofρ and θ

•The maximum shear stress at appoint does not change when the state of
stress at the point is changed hydrostatically;
•Tresca yield criteria represents a hexagonal cylinder in principal stress space.
•One commonly accepted concept is that this yield criterion expresses the strain
energy of distortion;
• On the basis of the distortion-energy concept, yielding will occur when the
strain energy of distortion per unit volume exceeds the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume for a specimen strained to the yield stress in uniaxial
tension or compression.
 Cont’d
• Another common physical interpretation is that it represents the critical value
of the octahedral shear stress;
• The total elastic strain energy per unit volume can be divided into two
components, the strain energy of distortion, and the strain energy of volume
change.
• Figure below illustrates the point that a general three-dimensional state of
stress can be expressed in terms of a spherical or hydrostatic component of
stress, a", and a stress deviator, a'.;
• Because experiments have shown 1 that up to rather large values of
hydrostatic pressure a hydrostatic state of stress has no effect on yielding, it is
valid to assume that only the stress deviator can produce distortion.
Combined stress tests:
• The conditions for yielding under states of stress other than uniaxial and
torsion loading can be conveniently studied with thin-wall tubes;
• Axial tension can be combined with torsion to give various combinations of
shear stress to normal stress intermediate between the values obtained
separately in tension and torsion;
• For the combined axial tension.
 Cont’d

Therefore, the maximum-

shear-stress criterion of
yielding is given by

Comparison between maximum-shear-stress

theory and distortion energy (Von Mise’s)
Theory
 YIELD LOCUS
• Yield locus or yield point is the material property defined as the
stress at which a material begins to deform plastically;
• Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will
return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed;
• Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation
will be permanent and non-reversible;
• In the three-dimensional space of the principal stresses (an infinite
number of yield points form together a yield surface;
• For the plane-stress condition, the distortion-energy theory of yielding
can be expressed mathematically by
 Anisotropy in yielding:
• A convenient way of comparing yielding criteria for a two-dimensional state
of stress is with a plot such as Fig.below;
• The maximum shear- stress theory and the distortion-energy theory predict
the same yield stress for conditions of uniaxial stress and balanced biaxial
stress;
• The greatest divergence between the two theories occurs for a state of pure
shear. It has already been shown that for this state of stress the shear-stress
law predicts a yield stress which is 15 per cent lower than the value given by
the distortion- energy criterion;

Yield locus for

textured
titanium-alloy
sheet
Slip line field theory
Methodology of slip line field analysis:
• Slab analysis of the forming process is considered approximate due to the assumption of
homogeneous deformation of material;
• Slip line field analysis is more accurate as it considers the non-homogeneous deformation
also;
• Slip line field analysis method is widely applied for forming processes such as rolling, strip
drawing, slab extrusion etc;
• Slip line field analysis is based on the important assumptions that the deformation of
material is plane strain type, no strain hardening of the material, constant shear stress at
interfaces, the material is rigid plastic;
• The general methodology of this analysis can be described by the following steps:
• First differential equations in terms of mean stress and deviatory stress for plane strain
deformation are formulated ;
• Slip line field is constructed graphically out of orthogonal maximum and minimum shear
lines;
• From known stress at some point, the integral constants are determined;
• From this the forming load can be found;
• What are slip lines? They are planes of maximum shear, which are oriented at 45 degrees to
the axes of principal stresses. Maximum and minimum slip lines are orthogonal.
 Cont’d

What is plane strain deformation? It is a type of plastic deformation

in which the material
flow in one of the three principal directions is constrained;
The material strain in the third direction is zero. This is possible by
the application of a constraint force along the third direction;
All displacements are restricted to xy plane, for example. Examples
for this type of deformation include strip rolling, strip extrusion etc.
 Cont’d

• Constraint to deformation along the third axis could be introduced either

through the die wall or through the rigid material adjacent to deforming
material, which prevents the flow;
• The basis for slip line field analysis is the fact that the general state of stress
on a solid in plane strain deformation can be represented by the sum of two
types of stresses, namely the mean stress and the pure shear stress.
• For plane strain condition we have:-
• We can write the Tresca criterion for plane strain as:
• For plane strain deformation we have the equilibrium of stresses written in
differential form as:

These two differential equations will be transformed into two algebraic

equations along a changed coordinate system, namely, along two directions of
maximum shear. Then they can be solved subjected two suitable boundary
conditions.
• Consider the plane strain state of stress acting on x-y plane this plane.
Let 𝜎 𝑥, 𝜎𝑦, 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 are stresses acting on the plane.
 Stresses in Plane strain condition
For plane strain condition, we have:

For the stress condition we can write:

Finally we get through all the equation

 Illustration of the slip line field analysis
• Consider the extrusion of a strip through a square die. Assume a reduction
of 50%.
Slip lines and hodograph for
axisymmetric extrusion

The hodograph – velocity diagram

• The slip lines are shown as radial and circular lines in the figure;
• The deformation field is symmetrical about center line. Therefore we may
analyze one half of the deformation region;
• Material undergoes velocity discontinuity along;
• The velocity discontinuities are shown in hodograph;
• Similarly the velocity vectors are shown in hodograph as lines radiating
from top left corner of the hodograph;
• The horizontal line in hodograph represents the velocity vector of the
particles before they enter the total length of the horizontal line in
hodograph represents the exit velocity of the material, which is twice the
initial velocity in this case – because we assume the reduction as 50%;
We need to find the punch pressure p. Stresses acting along the shear stress k
 Upper bounds and lower bounds
• Slip line field analysis has limited application in forming in view of its
applicability to plane strain deformation only;
• A more accurate and general analysis for determination of forming load is
the application of limit theorems. There are two limit theorems, upper bound
and lower bound;
• The lower bound theorem is not widely used for forming because it under
estimates the forming load
• Upper bound analysis overestimates the forming load. Therefore, upper
bound analysis is widely used for accurately predicting forming loads. It is
applicable to almost all types of forming;
• One should get the solution to the forming problem so that the solution
should be kinematically and statically admissible
• Kinematically admissible means the velocity field chosen should satisfy the
expected boundary conditions for the forming process as well as satisfy the
requirement of incompressibility.
• In upper bound we expect the kinematically admissible condition to be
satisfied by the solution.
 Upper bound theorem
• It states that for a given set of velocity fields, the velocity field which
minimizes the total energy is the nearest to the actual solution. In other
words, this velocity field minimizes the function:
• The upper-bound theorem can also be stated in a different way. It states
that the estimate of the force obtained by equating the internal energy
dissipation to external forces is equal to or greater than the correct force ;
• The field which minimizes the energy dissipation rate, given below, is the
required field:

•The first term on right hand side is the rate of work done due to plastic
straining, the second term is the rate of energy dissipated in internal velocity
discontinuity and the third term represents power consumed for friction;
•Generally for continuous velocity field the second term can be ignored;
•The rate of external work done in the process is equal to internal power
required for homogeneous deformation plus rate of work done in shear or
redundant deformation plus rate of work done for overcoming friction.
 Analysis of forming - Slab Method
• Forming of materials is a complex process, involving either biaxial or triaxial
state of stress on the material being formed;
•Prediction of forming load in a particular process is rather empirical;
•Fairly accurate methods have been developed in order to predict the forming
process and process parameters;
•Some of the early methods of forming analysis include slab analysis, slip line
field analysis, upper bound analysis etc;
• The availability of high speed computers that depend on finite element
method can use for accurate predictions of forming loads;
• Numerous metal forming software have been developed based on finite
element procedures for complex shapes with more realistic boundary
conditions;
•Slab method is a simple analytical procedure based on principles of
mechanics;
•Assume a simple relation between forming load and material flow stress in the
form: F = kσA, where k is an empirically determined constant which takes into
account friction, redundant deformation etc.
 Cont’d
• The general methodology involved in slab method can be stated as
follows: First the material under deformation is sliced into infinitesimally
small portions. Then force balance is made on the small element;
• From force balance a differential equation in terms of the forming stress,
geometric parameters of the billet and friction coefficient is formulated.
This differential equation is solved with suitable boundary conditions;
• The solution gives us the required forming stress. This method may
involve some simplifying assumptions. Hence this method may be
considered approximate;
• It may not be easy to apply this method for more complex forming
processes, such as impression die forging;
• Slab method is developed with the assumption that the material flow is
homogeneous during forming.
 Slab method - Upsetting of a ring
• Example:-
• Sliding or Columbic friction often occurs at the material tool interface; As
a result of friction the forming load is enhanced;
• The flow of material is also non-uniform due to friction;
• Another type of friction condition, namely, shear friction or sticking
friction could be convenient to consider in the analysis;
• In shear friction model, we assume the frictional shear stress to be
proportional to shear yield strength of the material.
• Thus we have:τ=mk , where m is friction factor and k is shear yield
strength. The following assumptions are the basis of the slab analysis:
1. The reference axes are in the directions of the applied stresses;
2. Friction does not cause non-uniform deformation. Therefore material is
assumed to deform homogeneously – a plane remains a plane after
deformation.
 Cont’d
• Consider the homogeneous deformation of a ring shaped specimen
subjected to upsetting force.
• Let us assume shear friction at tool-material interface;
• The ring compression process is widely used for finding the coefficient of
friction for given condition of friction;
• Consider an elemental portion of the ring specimen and the various
stresses on this element;
• The following diagram shows the stresses acting on the elemental part of
the ring.

Stresses acting on elemental

ring subjected to upsetting
 Cont’d
• Consider a small sector of an elemental ring of radius r, radial thickness dr,
height h and the angle of the sector as dθ;
• The ring is subjected to upset force F, which is to be determined.
• The various stresses acting on the sector are:
• Radial stresses σr, σr + d σr,
• The corresponding forces are: and

•Hoop stress The corresponding force is given by:

•Frictional shear stress mk. The corresponding force is:
•The arc length of the sector element is given by:
•We can also note that for uniform deformation of the ring,
•There exists a neutral radius in the ring, such that the material deformation
happens towards the axis for radii less than the neutral radius;
• There is a decrease in diameter of the ring;
• For radii greater than the neutral radius, the material flow is away from the
axis-axially outward; This condition exists because of friction.
 Cont’d
• Therefore, the friction force is observed to act axially outward within the
neutral section. It acts radially inward in sections beyond the neutral
section.
• The force balance along the radial direction gives:

We need to solve for σz the axial stress for upsetting the ring
We can apply Tresca yield criterion in order to replace σr in the above
differential equation.
Let us assume that the two principal stresses acting on the ring are σr and
σz
 Cont’d
• Therefore, we have:

Integrating once, we get:

For solving the constant C we could apply the following boundary conditions :

Or
 Cont’d
• Substituting for C in the general solution, we get:
 Cont’d

• In the above equation the bracketed term represents the factor which
accounts for friction effect during the forming;
• The limitation of uniform deformation assumption in slab method is
overcome in another method of analysis called slip line field analysis;
• The upset force is found to vary linearly with the friction factor m, as
observed from the above equation;
• The forming force required increases with reduction in height of the ring;
• Rings of smaller height require greater forming force as compared to
rings of larger height. This is expected because the redundant deformation
zone extends towards centre for rings of smaller height;
• Ring compression test is a simple test for determination of friction factor
or the coefficient of friction. It can also be used for studying the
lubrication characteristics of different lubricants.
 Workability
• Materials differ in their ability to undergo plastic deformation;
• The extent of plastic deformation in a material is dependent on the materials
grain structure, nature of bonding, presence of defects like dislocation and
external factors such as temperature;
• Workability is the ease with which a material can be subjected to plastic
deformation to achieve the desired shape without crack formation;
• In case of ductile materials the limit of forming is dictated by the beginning
of necking;
• Once necking starts, due to localized deformation, further deformation of the
work piece to finished shape becomes impossible;
• Therefore, in most of materials, the starting of necking is considered as the
limit of working or forming;
• Workability is dependent on material characteristics and external factors
such as tool and die geometry, friction, strain rate etc;
• The other criterion for workability may be the formation of cracks on the
surface or within the material during the forming process;
 Cont’d
• Cracks on external surface may form due to excessive tensile loads or friction;
• Internal cracks may form due to the presence of voids, second phase particles
etc;
• Necking during tensile deformation may result in formation of voids, which
may grow in size during loading;
• Cracks result due to excessive growth of voids and their coalescence;
• In compressive loading, generally surface cracks are formed due to excessive
tensile stresses induced on the bulged surfaces;
• Bulging is a non-uniform deformation during compressive loading of billets;
•A generalized fracture criterion may serve as a way of establishing workability
of ductile materials;
• Combinations of stress and strain in ductile materials can lead to fracture
unless the tensile stress induced reaches a critical value;
• More easily, tensile and compressive strains are correlated with each other in
order to arrive at a criterion for workability.
•In the figure shown above, (test result of compressive test)the broken line
having a slope of ½ represents fracture limit for an ideal material subjected to
upsetting without bulging;
• Any combination of tensile and compressive strains which lead to fracture is
represented by a point located above this line.