CORRELATIONAL

RESEARCH
DESIGN
- Correlational Research is a type of research that examines the
statistical relationship between two or more variables without
manipulating them. It is a non-experimental research design that
seeks to establish the degree of association or correlation between
two or more variables.
Types of Correlation

- A positive correlation occurs when two variables increase or decrease

together. This means that as one variable increases, the other variable also
tends to increase. Similarly, as one variable decreases, the other variable also
tends to decrease. For example, there is a positive correlation between the
amount of time spent studying and academic performance. The more time a
student spends studying, the higher their academic performance is likely to
be. Similarly, there is a positive correlation between a person’s age and their
income level. As a person gets older, they tend to earn more money.
- Negative Correlation

A negative correlation occurs when one variable increases while the other
decreases. This means that as one variable increases, the other variable tends to
decrease. Similarly, as one variable decreases, the other variable tends to increase.
For example, there is a negative correlation between the number of hours spent
watching TV and physical activity level. The more time a person spends watching
TV, the less physically active they are likely to be. Similarly, there is a negative
correlation between the amount of stress a person experiences and their overall
happiness. As stress levels increase, happiness levels tend to decrease.
- Zero Correlation

A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between two variables.

This means that the variables are unrelated and do not affect each other. For
example, there is zero correlation between a person’s shoe size and their IQ
score. The size of a person’s feet has no relationship to their level of
intelligence. Similarly, there is zero correlation between a person’s height and
their favorite color. The two variables are unrelated to each other.
- Curvilinear correlation, on the other hand, is a type of
correlation where the relationship between two variables is not
constant. This means that an increase in one variable may cause an
increase in the other until a certain point. After this point, the
increase in one variable may result in a decrease in the other. The
graphical representation of curvilinear correlation often forms a
curve, rather than a straight line.
Magnitude of Correlation

- An indication of the strength of relationship between two variables. Strength

or the magnitude of correlation can be determined by the correlation
coefficient.
- Correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree of relationship between
two variables, it can vary between -1.00 to +1.00. Closer the value is near to
-1.00 or +1.00, stronger the relationship is between two variables.
Purpose of Correlational Research

• The purpose of correlational research is to examine the

relationship between two or more variables. Correlational research
allows researchers to identify whether there is a relationship
between variables, and if so, the strength and direction of that
relationship. This information can be useful for predicting and
explaining behavior, and for identifying potential risk factors or
areas for intervention.
• Correlational research can be used in a variety of fields, including
psychology, education, medicine, business, and sociology.
• For example, in psychology, correlational research can be used to explore
the relationship between personality traits and behavior, or between early life
experiences and later mental health outcomes.
• In education, correlational research can be used to examine the relationship
between teaching practices and student achievement.
• In medicine, correlational research can be used to investigate the relationship
between lifestyle factors and disease outcomes.
Characteristics of Correlational
Research
• Examines the relationship between two or more variables: Correlational
research is designed to examine the relationship between two or more
variables. It seeks to determine if there is a relationship between the variables,
and if so, the strength and direction of that relationship.
• Non-experimental design: Correlational research is typically non-
experimental in design, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate any
variables. Instead, the researcher observes and measures the variables as they
naturally occur.
- Cannot establish causation: Correlational research cannot establish
causation, meaning that it cannot determine whether one variable causes
changes in another variable. Instead, it only provides information about the
relationship between the variables.
- Uses statistical analysis: Correlational research relies on statistical analysis
to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.
This may include calculating correlation coefficients, regression analysis, or
other statistical tests.
- Observes real-world phenomena: Correlational research is often used to
observe real-world phenomena, such as the relationship between education
and income or the relationship between stress and physical health.
- Can be conducted in a variety of fields: Correlational research can be
conducted in a variety of fields, including psychology, sociology, education,
and medicine.
- Can be conducted using different methods: Correlational research can be
conducted using a variety of methods, including surveys, observational
studies, and archival studies.
When to use Correlational Research

• When experimental research is not possible or ethical: In some situations, it

may not be possible or ethical to manipulate variables in an experimental
design. In these cases, correlational research can be used to explore the
relationship between variables without manipulating them.
• When exploring new areas of research: Correlational research can be useful
when exploring new areas of research or when researchers are unsure of the
direction of the relationship between variables. Correlational research can help
identify potential areas for further investigation.
• When testing theories: Correlational research can be useful for testing
theories about the relationship between variables. Researchers can use
correlational research to examine the relationship between variables
predicted by a theory, and to determine whether the theory is supported by
the data.
• When making predictions: Correlational research can be used to make
predictions about future behavior or outcomes. For example, if there is a
strong positive correlation between education level and income, one could
predict that individuals with higher levels of education will have higher
incomes.
• When identifying risk factors: Correlational research can be useful for
identifying potential risk factors for negative outcomes. For example, a study
might find a positive correlation between drug use and depression, indicating
that drug use could be a risk factor for depression.
Correlational Research Methods
• Surveys

Surveys are a common method used in correlational research. Researchers collect data by
asking participants to complete questionnaires or surveys that measure different variables of
interest. Surveys are useful for exploring the relationships between variables such as
personality traits, attitudes, and behaviors.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve observing and recording the behavior of participants in natural
settings. Researchers can use observational studies to examine the relationships between
variables such as social interactions, group dynamics, and communication patterns.
• Archival Data

Archival data involves using existing data sources such as historical records, census
data, or medical records to explore the relationships between variables. Archival data is
useful for investigating the relationships between variables that cannot be manipulated
or controlled.
• Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis involves combining and analyzing the results of multiple studies to

explore the relationships between variables across different contexts and populations.
Meta-analysis is useful for identifying patterns and inconsistencies in the literature and
can provide insights into the strength and direction of relationships between variables.
How to Conduct Correlational Research

• Identify the Research Question: Start by identifying the research question

that you want to explore. It should involve two or more variables that you
want to investigate for a correlation.
• Choose the research method: Decide on the research method that will be
most appropriate for your research question. The most common methods for
correlational research are surveys, archival research, and naturalistic
observation.
• Choose the Sample: Select the participants or data sources that you will use
in your study. Your sample should be representative of the population you
want to generalize the results to.
• Measure the variables: Choose the measures that will be used to assess the
variables of interest. Ensure that the measures are reliable and valid.
• Collect the Data: Collect the data from your sample using the chosen
research method. Be sure to maintain ethical standards and obtain informed
consent from your participants.
- Analyze the data: Use statistical software to analyze the data and compute
the correlation coefficient. This will help you determine the strength and
direction of the correlation between the variables.
- Interpret the results: Interpret the results and draw conclusions based on the
findings. Consider any limitations or alternative explanations for the results.
- Report the findings: Report the findings of your study in a research report or
manuscript. Be sure to include the research question, methods, results, and
conclusions.
Advantages of Correlational Research

• Allows for the exploration of relationships: Correlational research allows researchers to

explore the relationships between variables in a natural setting without manipulating any
variables. This can help identify possible relationships between variables that may not have
been previously considered.

• Can be conducted in real-world settings: Correlational research can be conducted

in real-world settings, which allows for the collection of data that is representative of
real-world phenomena.
• Can be less expensive and time-consuming than experimental research:
Correlational research is often less expensive and time-consuming than
experimental research, as it does not involve manipulating variables or
creating controlled conditions.
• Useful in identifying risk factors: Correlational research can be used to
identify potential risk factors for negative outcomes. By identifying variables
that are correlated with negative outcomes, researchers can develop
interventions or policies to reduce the risk of negative outcomes.
- Useful in exploring new areas of research: Correlational research can be
useful in exploring new areas of research, particularly when researchers are
unsure of the direction of the relationship between variables. By conducting
correlational research, researchers can identify potential areas for further
investigation.
Limitation of Correlational Research
• Cannot establish causation: Correlational research cannot establish causation,
meaning that it cannot determine whether one variable causes changes in another
variable. This is because it is not possible to control all possible confounding
variables that could affect the relationship between the variables being studied.
• Directionality problem: The directionality problem refers to the difficulty of
determining which variable is influencing the other. For example, a correlation
may exist between happiness and social support, but it is not clear whether social
support causes happiness, or whether happy people are more likely to have
social support.
• Third variable problem: The third variable problem refers to the possibility
that a third variable, not included in the study, is responsible for the observed
relationship between the two variables being studied.
• Limited generalizability: Correlational research is often limited in terms of
its generalizability to other populations or settings. This is because the
sample studied may not be representative of the larger population, or because
the variables studied may behave differently in different contexts.
• Relies on self-reported data: Correlational research often relies on self-
reported data, which can be subject to social desirability bias or other forms
of response bias.
• Limited in explaining complex behaviors: Correlational research is limited
in explaining complex behaviors that are influenced by multiple factors, such
as personality traits, situational factors, and social context.