Cryptography and

Network Security
Chapter 2
Fifth Edition
by William Stallings

Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

 Symmetric Encryption
 or conventional / private-key / single-key
 sender and recipient share a common key
 all classical encryption algorithms are
private-key
 was only type prior to invention of public-
key in 1970’s
 and by far most widely used (still)
 is significantly faster than public-key crypto
 Some Basic Terminology
 plaintext - original message
 ciphertext - coded message
 cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
 key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
 encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
 decipher (decrypt) - recovering plaintext from ciphertext
 cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
 cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
 cryptology - field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
Symmetric Cipher Model
 Requirements
 two requirements for secure use of symmetric
encryption:
 a strong encryption algorithm
 a secret key known only to sender / receiver
 mathematically have:
Y = E(K, X) = EK(X) = {X}K
X = D(K, Y) = DK(Y)
 assume encryption algorithm is known
 Kerckhoff’s Principle: security in secrecy of key alone,
not in obscurity of the encryption algorithm
 implies a secure channel to distribute key
 Central problem in symmetric cryptography
 Cryptography
 can characterize cryptographic system by:
 type of encryption operations used
• substitution
• transposition
• product
 number of keys used
• single-key or private
• two-key or public
 way in which plaintext is processed
• block
• stream
 Cryptanalysis
 objective to recover key not just message
 general approaches:
 cryptanalytic attack
 brute-force attack
 if either succeed all key use compromised
 Cryptanalytic Attacks
 ciphertext only
 only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical,
can identify plaintext
 known plaintext
 know/suspect plaintext & ciphertext
 chosen plaintext
 select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
 chosen ciphertext
 select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
 chosen text
 select plaintext or ciphertext to en/decrypt
 Cipher Strength
 unconditional security
 no matter how much computer power or time
is available, the cipher cannot be broken since
the ciphertext provides insufficient information
to uniquely determine the corresponding
plaintext
 computational security
 given limited computing resources (e.g. time
needed for calculations is greater than age of
universe), the cipher cannot be broken
 Encryption Mappings
M1 C1  A given key (k)
 Maps any message Mi to
M2 K1 C2
some ciphertext E(k,Mi)
 Ciphertext image of Mi is
unique to Mi under k

K1
K1

M3 C3  Plaintext pre-image of Ci is
K1

unique to Ci under k
 Notation A
A
K1
 key k and Mi in M, Ǝ! Cj
Mi Ci
in C such that E(k,Mi) = Cj
A A
 key k and ciphertext Ci
K1
in C, Ǝ! Mj in M such that
E(k,Mj) = Ci
Mn
Cn 
Ek(.) is “one-to-one” (injective)
M=set of all C=set of all
 If |M|=|C| it is also “onto”
plaintexts ciphertexts (surjective), and hence
bijective.
 Encryption Mappings (2)
M1 C1
 A given plaintext (Mi)
 Mi is mapped to some ciphertext
E(K,Mi) by every key k
M2 Kj C2
 Different keys may map Mi to the
same ciphertext
 There may be some ciphertexts to
M3 K2,K89,... C3
which Mi is never mapped by any
K3,K
key
j’,.
Km ..  Notation
A A
 key k and Mi in M, Ǝ!
K1
,K ciphertext Cj in C such that
Mi 7 57 Ci E(k,Mi) = Cj
,..
.  It is possible that there are keys k
and k’ such that E(k,Mi) = E(k’,Mi)
 There may be some ciphertext Cj
Mn for which Ǝ key k such that
Cn E(k,Mi) = Cj
 Encryption Mappings (3)
M1 C1  A ciphertext (Ci)
 Has a unique plaintext pre-
K1
,K 1
image under each k
M2 7,. C2  May have two keys that map
..
the same plaintext to it
 There may be some plaintext
M3 K2,K89,... C3 Mj such that no key maps Mj
Km .
to Ci
,..
4  Notation
...

...
. .. Kj , K9
K3
A A
 key k and ciphertext Ci
Mi .. . Ci in C, Ǝ! Mj in M such that
E(k,Mj) = Ci
 There may exist keys k, k’
...

...

and plaintext Mj such that

E(k,Mj) = E(k’,Mj) = Ci
Mn
Cn
 There may exist plaintext Mj
such that Ǝ key k such that
E(k,Mj) = Ci
 Encryption Mappings (4)
 Under what conditions will there always be
some key that maps some plaintext to a
given ciphertext?
 If for an intercepted ciphertext c , there is
j
some plaintext mi for which there does not
exist any key k that maps mi to cj, then the
attacker has learned something
 If the attacker has ciphertext c and known
j
plaintext mi, then many keys may be
eliminated
 Brute Force Search
 always possible to simply try every key
 most basic attack, exponential in key length
 assume either know / recognise plaintext

Key Size (bits) Number of Alternative Time required at 1 Time required at 106
Keys decryption/µs decryptions/µs
32 232 = 4.3  109 231 µs = 35.8 minutes 2.15 milliseconds
56 256 = 7.2  1016 255 µs = 1142 years 10.01 hours
128 2128 = 3.4  1038 2127 µs = 5.4  1024 years 5.4  1018 years

168 2168 = 3.7  1050 2167 µs = 5.9  1036 years 5.9  1030 years

26 characters 26! = 4  1026 2  1026 µs = 6.4  1012 years 6.4  106 years
(permutation)
 Classical Substitution
Ciphers
 where letters of plaintext are replaced by
other letters or by numbers or symbols
 or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of
bits, then substitution involves replacing
plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit
patterns
 Caesar Cipher
 earliest known substitution cipher
 by Julius Caesar
 first attested use in military affairs
 replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
 example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
 Caesar Cipher
 can define transformation as:
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z =
IN
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C =
OUT

 mathematically give each letter a number

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

 then have Caesar (rotation) cipher as:

c = E(k, p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(k, c) = (c – k) mod (26)
 Cryptanalysis of Caesar
Cipher
 only have 26 possible ciphers
 A maps to A,B,..Z
 could simply try each in turn
 a brute force search
 given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
 do need to recognize when have plaintext
 eg. break ciphertext "GCUA VQ DTGCM"
 Affine Cipher
 broaden to include multiplication
 can define affine transformation as:
c = E(k, p) = (ap + b) mod (26)
p = D(k, c) = (a-1c – b) mod (26)
 key k=(a,b)
 a must be relatively prime to 26
 so there exists unique inverse a-1
 Affine Cipher - Example
 example k=(17,3):
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y
z = IN
D U L C T K B S J A R I Z Q H Y P G X O F W N E V
M = OUT
 example:
meet me after the toga party
ZTTO ZT DKOTG OST OHBD YDGOV
 Now how many keys are there?
 12 x 26 = 312
 Still can be brute force attacked!
 Note: Example of product cipher
 Monoalphabetic Cipher
 rather than just shifting the alphabet
 could shuffle (permute) the letters arbitrarily
 each plaintext letter maps to a different random
ciphertext letter
 hence key is 26 letters long

Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN

Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
 Monoalphabetic Cipher
Security
 key size is now 25 characters…
 now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026keys
 with so many keys, might think is secure
 but would be !!!WRONG!!!
 problem is language characteristics
 Language Redundancy and
Cryptanalysis
 human languages are redundant
 e.g., "th lrd s m shphrd shll nt wnt"
 letters are not equally commonly used
 in English E is by far the most common letter
 followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
 other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
 have tables of single, double & triple letter
frequencies for various languages
English Letter Frequencies
English Letter Frequencies
Sorted Relative Frequencies

14.000

12.000

10.000

8.000

6.000
What kind of cipher is this?
English Letter Frequencies

14.000

12.000

10.000

8.000

6.000

4.000
Frequences for Cipher-0

2.000
14.000

0.000
12.000 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

10.000

8.000
What kind of cipher is this?
English Letter Frequencies

14.000

12.000

10.000

8.000

6.000

4.000
Frequencies for Cipher-1
2.000
14.000

0.000
12.000 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

10.000

8.000
 Sorted English Letter Frequencies

14.000

12.000

10.000

8.000

6.000
Sorted Frequencies for Cipher-1
4.000
14.000

2.000
12.000

0.000
10.000 E T A O I N S H R D L C U M W F G Y P B V K J X Q Z

8.000

6.000
 Use in Cryptanalysis
 key concept - monoalphabetic substitution
ciphers do not change relative letter frequencies
 discovered by Arabian scientists in 9 th century
 calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
 compare counts/plots against known values
 if caesar cipher look for common peaks/troughs
 peaks at: A-E-I triple, N-O pair, R-S-T triple
 troughs at: J-K, U-V-W-X-Y-Z
 for monoalphabetic must identify each letter
 tables of common double/triple letters help
(digrams and trigrams)
 amount of ciphertext is important – statistics!
 Example Cryptanalysis
 given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
 count relative letter frequencies (see text)
 Example Cryptanalysis
 given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
 guess P & Z are e and t
 guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is “the”
 proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal
but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
 Playfair Cipher
 not even the large number of keys in a
monoalphabetic cipher provides security
 one approach to improving security was to
encrypt multiple letters
 the Playfair Cipher is an example
 invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854,
but named after his friend Baron Playfair
 Playfair Key Matrix
 a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
 fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
 fill rest of matrix with other letters
 eg. using the keyword MONARCHY

M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
 Encrypting and Decrypting
 plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X’
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace
each with letter to right (wrapping back to start
from end)
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace
each with the letter below it (wrapping to top
from bottom)
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter
in the same row and in the column of the other
letter of the pair
 Playfair Example
 Message = Move forward
 Plaintext = mo ve fo rw ar dx
 Here x is just a filler, message is padded and segmented
 mo -> ON; ve -> UF; fo -> PH, etc.
 Ciphertext = ON UF PH NZ RM BZ
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
 Security of Playfair Cipher
 security much improved over monoalphabetic
 since have 26 x 26 = 676 digrams
 would need a 676 entry frequency table to
analyse (versus 26 for a monoalphabetic)
 and correspondingly more ciphertext
 was widely used for many years
 eg. by US & British military in WW1
 it can be broken, given a few hundred letters
 since still has much of plaintext structure
 Hill Ciphers
Lester Hill, 1929. Not used much, but is historically significant: first
time linear algebra used in crypto
Use an n x n matrix M. Encrypt by breaking plaintext into blocks of
length n (padding with x’s if needed) and multiplying each by M
(mod 26).

Example: Encrypt “hereissomeonetoencrypt” using M

 1 2 3
M   4 5 6
her eis som eon eto enc ryp txx
(7, 4, 17) (4, 8, 18) … (19, 23, 23)

11 9 8

 1 2 3
7 4 17  4 5 6  2 5 25mod 26
(2, 5, 25) (0, 2, 22) 11… 9 8 (0, 22, 15)
 
cfz acw yga vns ave anc sdd awp
“CFZACWYGAVNSAVEANCSDDAWP”
 Polyalphabetic Ciphers
 polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
 improve security using multiple cipher alphabets
 make cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets
to guess and flatter frequency distribution
 use a key to select which alphabet is used for
each letter of the message
 use each alphabet in turn
 repeat from start after end of key is reached
 Vigenère Cipher
 simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
 effectively multiple caesar ciphers
 key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd
 ith
letter specifies ith alphabet to use
 use each alphabet in turn
 repeat from start after d letters in message
 decryption simply works in reverse
 Example of Vigenère Cipher
 write the plaintext out
 write the keyword repeated above it
 use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
 encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
 eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
 Aids
 simple aids can assist with en/decryption
 a Saint-Cyr Slide is a simple manual aid
 a slide with repeated alphabet
 line up plaintext 'A' with key letter, eg 'C'
 then read off any mapping for key letter
 can bend round into a cipher disk
 or expand into a Vigenère Tableau
 Security of Vigenère Ciphers
 have multiple ciphertext letters for each
plaintext letter
 hence letter frequencies are obscured
 but not totally lost
 start with letter frequencies
 see if it looks monoalphabetic or not
 if not, then need to determine number of
alphabets, since then can attack each
 Vernam Cipher
 ultimate defense is to use a key as long as the
plaintext
 with no statistical relationship to it
 invented by AT&T engineer Gilbert Vernam in
1918
 specified in U.S. Patent 1,310,719, issued July
22, 1919
 originally proposed using a very long but
eventually repeating key
 used electromechanical relays
 One-Time Pad
 if a truly random key as long as the message is
used, the cipher will be secure
 called a One-Time pad (OTP)
 is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no
statistical relationship to the plaintext
 since for any plaintext & any ciphertext there
exists a key mapping one to other
 can only use the key once though
 problems in generation & safe distribution of key
 Transposition Ciphers
 now consider classical transposition or
permutation ciphers
 these hide the message by rearranging
the letter order
 without altering the actual letters used
 can recognise these since have the same
frequency distribution as the original text
 Rail Fence cipher
 write message letters out diagonally over a
number of rows
 use a “W” pattern (not column-major)
 then read off cipher row by row
 eg. write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
 giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
 Row Transposition Ciphers
 is a more complex transposition
 write letters of message out in rows over a
specified number of columns
 then reorder the columns according to
some key before reading off the rows
Key: 4312567
Column Out 4 3 1 2 5 6 7
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
o s t p o n e
d u n t i l t
w o a m x y z
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
 Rotor Machines
 before modern ciphers, rotor machines were
most common complex ciphers in use
 widely used in WW2
 German Enigma, Allied Hagelin, Japanese Purple
 implemented a very complex, varying
substitution cipher
 used a series of cylinders, each giving one
substitution, which rotated and changed after
each letter was encrypted
 with 3 cylinders have 263=17576 alphabets
Hagelin Rotor Machine
Rotor Machine Principles
 Rotor Ciphers
 Each rotor implements some permutation
between its input and output contacts
 Rotors turn like an odometer on each key
stroke (rotating input and output contacts)
 Key is the sequence of rotors and their
initial positions
 Note: enigma also had steckerboard
permutation
 Steganography
 an alternative to encryption
 hides existence of message
 using only a subset of letters/words in a longer
message marked in some way
 using invisible ink
 hiding in LSB in graphic image or sound file
 hide in “noise”
 has drawbacks
 high overhead to hide relatively few info bits
 advantage is can obscure encryption use