Earthquakes,

Volcanic Eruptions,
and related
Tsunamis
Earthquakes in map view and cross-section show the subduction
zones (Wadati-Benioff zones), and also major strike-slip faults
 The
Philippines
is getting
squeezed
and
sheared, at
rates of
several
cm/year
But convergence
is oblique, not
head-on!

Creates both
subduction
thrust faults
AND
strike-slip, side-
ways shearing
faults like the
Philippine Fault
and its splays.
 ed
ciat
as so
and fault)
ch (
ren thrust
ne T n
ippi ctio
Phil subdu
Main faults of Bicol

ult
Fa
Sib
May 5, 2018, 2:19 PM, M 6.0 earthquake
North of Catanduanes

From
PHIVOLCS
What makes an earthquake?
• In most cases, sudden slip along a fault after
tectonic stress builds up to a breaking point.
• Repeated cycles of this are called “stick-slip”
behavior.
OK, sudden slip, but what makes the
SHAKING motion?
• Pent-up potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy in the form of vibration, like ringing a bell.
Technical term=“Elastic rebound”
• Vibrations in the earth caused by sudden slip
include:
• P-waves (primary waves, travel fastest and are the first t
o arrive)
• S-waves (shear or secondary waves)
• Surface waves (various kinds, ‘rolling or rocking motion,’
last to arrive and cause the most damage) (like the
cardboard house rocking back and forth)
Magnitude: size (energy released) of an earthquake. One value, no matter
where you are. Richter scale

Intensity: effects (felt reports) of an earthquake. Varies with distance from

hypocenter, and also with the kind of soil you’re on (soft, hard). Modified
Mercalli, or PHIVOLCS scale.

Credit:
civilarc.com
From Global Seismology, Ch 4
 How can we know
which way the earth slipped?
• If the rupture breaks the Earth’s surface, you can
see the sense of motion directly.
OR
• Precise GPS or InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar) measurements
OR
• Focal mechanisms explained by IRIS
• https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/
focal_mechanisms_explained
Earthquakes don’t kill people; Buildings do

Enrique Rebsamen Elem School,

Mexico City , Sept. 20, 2017
 What makes a building more or less
subject to earthquake damage?
Damage will depend on a COMBINATION of:
• Design and construction of the building
• Magnitude, duration, and spectral frequency of shaking
• Nature of earthquake, distance from source, type of soil at building site
• Integrity of the foundation against liquefaction, landslide
• MINIMAL EFFECT: Proximity to an earthquake fault
 Fundamental idea is to make
buildings either VERY FLEXIBLE or
VERY RIGID
• Bamboo nipa houses are fine – very flexible
• Steel high-rises are generally fine – flexible, but strong if well-tied
together

• Most problems arise in masonry buildings (e.g., typical post and

beam, concrete hollow block construction used in the Philippines).
Must pay attention to:
• Adequate use of reinforcing steel (kabilya)
• Quality of concrete (proper mix of cement, sand, and gravel)
• Adequate reinforcing of concrete hollow block walls (falling blocks kill)
• Complete ties between kabilya of the posts and the beams (and roofs)
• Natural shaking frequency of building (depends on # of stories, shape,
and on soil)
• Liquefaction (water-saturated sandy soil that turns into quicksand) may
require deep pilings. This and tsunami were the main problems in Palu,
Sulawesi, in October 2018.
Next up, Volcanoes…
Cross-section of typical oceanic island
arc, forming above subduction zone
What causes Volcanic Eruptions?
• Volcanic gas! (H2O, CO2, SO2, H2S, HCl, HF)
It’s the same concept at
volcanoes…
• Volatiles under pressure remain dissolved in
magma
• When decompressed (‘cork is popped’), volatiles
EXSOLVE into gas bubbles, exert pressure.

• If expansion takes place over fractions of a second

→ EXPLOSIVE eruption
• If expansion takes place more slowly, likely to →
LAVA FLOW or DOME
Explosive vs. non-explosive eruptions
 What controls explosivity of an
eruption?
• Initial gas content of the magma
• Was it volatile-saturated?
• Was there any “excess” gas accumulation, as discrete
bubbles?
• How quickly the magma ascends and is depressurized
• How much degassing occurred enroute to the surface? I.e.,
does it still have its fizz? (depends mainly on magma ascent
rates)
• How quickly was the ‘cork is popped’?
• How easily gas can escape from magma? Relates to
viscosity of magma, permeability of magma foam
Volcanic
Explosivity Index
(VEI)
Newhall and Self, JGR, 1982
 Two ways to generate really big
explosive eruptions…
• Rapid ascent and depressurization of magma,
before gas has time to leak out. Timeframe: Hours
to days. Example, Mayon 1814. VEI 4-5

• Plugging of conduit for centuries or longer, so

magma becomes oversaturated in volatiles, and
accumulates “excess” gas as discrete bubbles.
Examples: Pinatubo 1991; Irosin Caldera. VEI 5-8
Tight Leaky Tight Leaky

Tight Leaky

Vesuvio

Vesuvio (now); Sakurajima;

St. Helens, Vesuvio
Masaraga, (1631-1944),
Isarog, Labo Mayon

Tight (plugged) &

Leaky (open-
Pinatubo, Iwo-jima,
Kawa-kawa Stromboli conduit) Parker Taal, Irosin (?)
 Lava-Lamp Style Convection in Conduit

Gas rich magma, rises,

then foams when it
nears surface, and
releases its gas.

Degassed magma
foam collapses
(densifies) and sinks
as blebs. This
displaces more
volatile-rich magma
upward.

After Kazahaya and

Shinohara, GSJ
 “Smoking gun” evidence of convection?

• Mayon 2000 pyroclastic

flow: rounded enclaves
of light-colored,
microcrystalline,
degassed magma
enclosed in dark, glassy
bombs
• Sinking blebs “caught in
the act”

From Maricar Arpa, PHIVOLCS

Main products of
volcanic eruptions
 Earliest cousins of Mayon:
cinder cones that didn’t grow into full-size volcanoes ☺

One, Inascan, has ash on top that is

41,000 years old; others include
Kawa-kawa & Ligñon Hill
 And the one that grew up? Mayon

Symmetrical & tall because most

eruptions are relatively small, only
moderately explosive (VEI 2-3)
… and the frequent small eruptions, in
turn, are because magma-filled conduit
stays open, rarely gets plugged.
 Typical Mayon lava fountains and flows

2006 2009

2018

2006 1968
Spindle bomb high on cone, shaped by
spinning through air
Downwind,
ash falling
like rain…
… blanketing the
countryside and
accumulating in
layers that can be
reconstructed
and dated
(Nasisi, Ligao)
Pyroclastic flows that
form from
collapsing eruption
columns
Bomb-rich pyroclastic flow deposits
 Large cauliflower or breadcrust bomb,
possibly from 1897 “pangiri’kiti” eruption
 Typical Mayon lahars

Upper left, hot lahars, T Corpuz

Lower right, lahar crossing, Basud,
C Newhall

Both from 1984 eruption

Entrance to Mayon Riviera subdivision, 1984
Now, how about BIG eruptions of
Mayon?

• What caused the 1814 eruption of Mayon to be

much bigger than normal?
• What killed 1200+ at Cagsawa and Budiao?
 On the
surface, big
boulders of
lahar deposit

Credit:
Litratista,FLICKR
But in Miisi, upslope from Budiao, first layers of 1814 are thin
ashfall, then pyroclastic surge (dilute pyroclastic flow)!
Rock type: relatively glassy, olivine-bearing, gas-rich basalt
The biggest eruptions of Mayon, perhaps
once a century (plus or minus), occur when a
big batch of fresh, gas-rich magma ascends
quickly.

• E.g., 1814, 1897

Are the strongest eruptions of Mayon
preceded by strong earthquakes?
(Eruptions of 1814 and 1897 preceded, weeks to few years, by big
earthquakes along Philippine Fault)
 D Harlow, USGS
Second way to generated BIG eruptions:
Plugging, accumulation of supra-saturation bubble phase
NOAA-10, IR, 6/15/91

Climactic eruption, June 15, 1991

Before
eruption

Befor
After, withenew caldera
Giant SO2 cloud, 17 Mt,
largest since satellite
coverage began in 1979;
for comparison, MSH 1 Mt;
Lowered global T’s by 0.5C
for 2 years!
 Pinatubo is a SMALL
caldera! (VEI 6). Some
are much bigger (VEI 7-8)

Example: Crater Lake, Oregon

from Hobart King, Geology.com

Pinatubo caldera
(left and scaled box);
Pinatubo, at same scale
Taal and Laguna calderas (right) as Taal, Laguna de Bay
Bulusan Volcano, Sorsogon
Latest magmatic eruption in 1918, but
preparing for another?
 Irosin Caldera, formed by a VEI 7 eruption

Bulusan Volcano, Irosin, seen

from South. Pic by Val
Olfindo, UP NIGS
Irosin Caldera
Thick, pumice-rich pyroclastic flows swept
much of Sorsogon, 41,000 years ago
Toba YTT: Largest caldera-forming
eruption within past 100 ka

Masturyono et al, G3, 2001

 Toba Caldera(s):
100 km end-to-end

Younger Toba Tuff YTT eruption, 74,000 yrs ago, 2800 km3 of magma erupted!
 A rare but scary event – giant
landslide (sector collapse), best seen
at Mount St. Helens, May 18, 1980
 Any Philippine examples?

Many! Example: Mt Iriga (=Mt Asog)

Also, Banahaw, Labo, Isarog, Masaraga, Kanlaon and certainly more
Any parallel to Mt. Iriga up at Mt. Isarog?
Pyroclastic flow and surge deposits, west of Goa
Age of charcoal,
5300-5600 yrs
 Tsunamis caused by earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, or submarine
landslides-- HOW???
• Any sudden, large displacement of seawater
• Most common way = Plate dragged down by subduction
snaps back up (just inboard from trenches)

• Also, submarine volcanic explosions, pyroclastic flows or

volcanic sector collapses entering the sea.
• Also, submarine landslides, often of sediment
accumulating and oversteepening in submarine deltas at
the mouths of major rivers. Landslides can be triggered
even by small earthquakes, or even by passing typhoons
(note current disruption of internet in SE Asia).
 Video is by far the best way to
understand tsunamis

• Tohoku (Japan) tsunami, March 2011

March 2011 earthquake and tsunami disaster in Japan
Finally, a problem about tsunamis
here in the Philippines
 Compare to policy and practiced drill in Sendai…
teacher must take students to nearest high ground.
No exceptions.
Here’s what fate the students would have met, had
their principal not led them onto the rooftop!
 So I close with a challenge:
Earthquakes and tsunamis are too sudden for orderly
evacuation. In case of sudden hazard, YOU the
teachers must guide your students to safety. Not the
parents, not the MDRRMO, and not the Governor.
Only YOU and YOUR PRINCIPAL.

Practice drills with your student. Drop and cover, go

to high ground if near a coast, and stay with students
until parents can eventually fetch them.
DO NOT DISMISS CLASSES!!!

If this is not yet DepEd policy, please make it

so!
Time for another break … ☺
Interesting dilemma for scientists and
politicians, civil defense, planners and
residents
• For earthquakes, good buildings are key.
• For volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, evacuation is the
primary precaution.
• But building or evacuating for 100% safety is
expensive. What building code will be required?
What areas will be off-limits for development? And
what areas will need to be evacuated, and when?
• Much depends on people’s willingness to accept risk,
and the politicians’ understanding of that.
 POTENTIAL
EARTHQUAKE
HAZARDS
 DO THIS! Examine the pictures shown below:

1. What have you observed from the pictures shown?

2. Based on what on your assessment of the picture, what do
you think could have happened to the place/s?
 Identify what would probably happen in the
following areas if an earthquake occurs.
1. A community located near the coastline
facing the Pacific Ocean.
2. A steep slope with a loose soil and large
rock fragments.
3. A building constructed in an area near a
fault line.
4. An old church with a deteriorating
foundation.
5. A low-lying community located near a lake.
EARTHQUAKE
- natural phenomenon
wherein the surface of the
Earth moves or vibrates
due to a sudden release of
energy that is caused by
the movements of the
plates.
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
- any physical
phenomenon associated
with an earthquake that
may affect human
activities
PRIMARY HAZARDS
- direct result during an earthquake
1. Ground shaking
2. Ground or surface rupture
3. Liquefaction
4. Earthquake-induced
landslides
GROUND SHAKING
- the vibration of the ground where an
earthquake occurs
Factors that can affect the intensity of
ground shaking during an earthquake:
1.) Magnitude of the
earthquake;
2.) Distance from the
epicenter; and
3.) Local geological
conditions.
GROUND OR SURFACE RUPTURE
- happens on areas where the fault zone moves

Deformation zones- a zone with variable width

where fractures have developed

PHIVOLCS
recommends a five
meter buffer zone
from the edge of the
deformation zone for
building structures
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED
LANDSLIDES
- a wide range ground movement such as rock fall and
debris flow.
: magnitude-4.0 earthquake is strong enough
to trigger rock fall.
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED
LANDSLIDES
• Over steepened slopes
created by erosion in rivers, glaciers or
ocean waves
• Rock and soil slopes weakened
through saturations by heavy rains
• Excess weight from accumulation of
rain and snow
• Weak slopes due to the stockpiling of
rock or ore from waste piles or from
humanmade structures.
LIQUEFACTION
- occurs when sand or soil and groundwater mixed
during an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.5 and
higher

When liquefaction
occurs under a
building, the building
may start to lean, tip
over or sink for
several meters.
SECONDARY EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
- results of the primary hazards, which
are to be more disastrous.

1. Tsunami
2. Seiche
3. Flooding
4. Fire
TSUNAMIS
- huge waves caused by an earthquake that originate
beneath the ocean a

Tsunamis are also

usually referred to
as tidal wave,
TSUNAMIS
There are two types of tsunamis;
a.) locally-generated tsunamis, which are
caused by earthquakes from nearby
trenches and
b.) far-field tsunamis, which are
generated by earthquakes from sources
that are located farther from the area of
impact
TSUNAMIS
There are two types of tsunamis;
a.) locally-generated tsunamis, which are
caused by earthquakes from nearby
trenches and
b.) far-field tsunamis, which are
generated by earthquakes from sources
that are located farther from the area of
impact
TSUNAMIS
SEICHE (‘sāsh, ‘sēch)
- Is standing waves that are created in a
closed or partially-closed body of water such
as lakes, reservoir, swimming pools and bays
due to strong wind or
earthquake.
FLOODING
FIRE
 I
Recognize the natural signs of an
impending tsunami DRR11/12-If-g-18
 Tsunami and earthquake can
happen anytime around the
Pacific Ring of Fire
from California up and around
Alaska down trough Japan,
Taiwan, Philippines and
Indonesia.
 Tsunami
• – is a series of sea waves
generated by various geological
processes and commonly
generated by under-the-sea
earthquakes and whose heights
could be greater than 5 meters.
 Tsunami
• Example of recent tsunami
events in the Philippines are
the August 1976 Moro Gulf
Earthquake and Tsunami and
the November 1994 Oriental
Mindoro Earthquake and
Tsunami.
Tsunami vs. Storm Surge
A Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “harbor waves”
How are tsunamis generated?
Two types of Tsunami
1.Local tsunamis
2.Far field or
distant tsunamis
1. Local tsunamis are confined
to coasts within a hundred
kilometers from the source.
- It is usually generated by
earthquakes and landslide or
pyroclastic flow.
- It can reach the shoreline
within 2 to 5 minutes.
2. Far field or distant tsunamis can travel from 1 to
24 hours before reaching the coast of the nearby
countries.
- These tsunamis mainly coming from the countries
bordering Pacific Ocean like Chile, Alaska in USA
and Japan. P
- Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) and
Northwest Pacific Tsunami Advisory Center
(NWPTAC) are the responsible agencies that
closely monitor Pacific-wide tsunami event
and send tsunami Phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
warning to the countries around the Pacific
Ocean.
PHILIPPINES TSUNAMI INFORMATION
NATURAL SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING TSUNAMI
NATURAL SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING TSUNAMI
NATURAL SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING TSUNAMI
PHIVOLCS Tsunami Warning Sign

GREEN

YELLOW

ORANGE
PHIVOLCS Tsunami Warning Sign
QUIZ
Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
A (1) _______________ is a massive sea wave caused by
(2) _______________, (3) _______________, (4) ___________ ,
and (5) _______________ . Natural warning signs are often
monitored and observed to prevent this sea wave. One of the
signs is a felt shaking of the ground. If you are in a tsunami-prone
area while the ground is shaking, protect yourself first by doing
the (6) __________. Immediately go to (7) ________ when the
shaking stops. Another sign is (8) __________ which is the
receding of the water exposing the normally submerged areas. If
this is observed, immediately run away from the shore. And the
last sign to look for is hearing an unusual (9) _______________
similar to that of a train or jet aircraft. Do not wait for an
(10) _______________ if one of the natural signs of an
impending tsunami is observed.
DRAWBACK DUCK,COVER AND HOLD
RUMBLING SOUND DRAWBACK
HIGHER GROUND OFFICIAL WARNING
VOLCANIC ERUPTION UNDERWATER LANDSLIDES
TSUNAMI ASTEROIDS
EARTHQUAKES
TAKEHOME ACTIVITY
Volcano- Related
Hazards
Below is a labeled picture/ illustration of a volcano. However, some of the items are missing,
can you fill them in? Choose your answer from Box B provided below:

a. Lahar
1. b. Ballistic
2.
Projectile
3. c. Ash Fall
5.
4.
d. Volcanic
Gasses
e.
Pyroclastic
6. Flow
7. f. Lava Flow
1. Volcanic Gasses
2. Ash Fall
3. Ballistic Projectile
4. Pyroclastic Flow
5. Pyroclastic Flow
6. Lava Flow
7. Lahar
Lahar is a Javanese term
(Java is an island in
Indonesia) that describes
a hot or cold mixture of
water and rock fragments
that flows down
the slopes of a volcano
and typically enters a river
valley
Ash Fall
Volcanic ash consists of
tiny jagged particles of
rock and natural glass
blasted into the
air by a volcano. Ash can
threaten the health of
people and livestock, pose
a hazard to
flying jet aircraft, damage
electronics and machinery,
and interrupt power
generation and
telecommunications.
C. Pyroclastic Flow
Pyroclastic flows contain a high-density mix of hot
lava blocks, pumice, ashes and
volcanic gases.
C. Ballistic Projectile
Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting volcano
may hurl into the air.
C Volcanic Gases
Magma contains dissolved gases, which provide the
driving force that causes most
volcanic eruptions.
Lava Flow
Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or
ooze from an erupting vent. Lava is erupted during
either non explosive activity or explosive lava
fountains.
Signs of Impending
Volcanic Eruption
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
1.) Increase in the
frequency of volcanic
quakes with
rumbling sound.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.

2.) Crater glows

due to presence of
magma at or near
the crater.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
3.) Localized landslides,
rock falls and landslides
from the summit are
present due to heavy
rains.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
4) Increased drying up
of plants around the
volcano's upper slope is
easily seen or noticed.
Most volcanoes provide various types
of warnings before eruptions begin.
Some volcanoes, especially those that
have not erupted for a long time
(hundreds of years) might display
obvious signs, months to weeks before
a major eruption (ex. Pinatubo
in 1991)
Some volcanoes might explode
without warning (phreatic
eruption). Also known as
steam-blast eruptions, these
events could occur with little or
no warning as
superheated water flashes to
steam
Observable signs when a volcano is
about to erupt:
• Most volcanoes provide various types of warning before
eruptions begin.
• Steam-blast eruptions
• Magmatic eruptions, involve rise of magma towards the
surface
• earthquakes,
• may deform (change the shape/form) the ground surface,
• unusual heat flow or changes in the temperature and
chemistry of the groundwater
• spring waters, like presence of magmatic carbon dioxide or
helium.
Observable signs when a volcano is
about to erupt:
• People living near volcanoes may experience warning
signs before an eruption.
Observable signs when a volcano is
about to erupt:

• • Measurement of Changes in Heat Flow

 DETECTION AND INTERPRETATION
OF PRECURSORY EVENTS

• Monitoring of volcanic precursors may provide a

general warning that volcanic activity in a
specific area is becoming more likely, but it often
does not pinpoint the nature or timing of an
eruption or even its certainty.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
1.) In order to assess and
forecast a volcano’s
activity, volcanologists
need only to use one
parameter.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
2.) Aside from instrumental
monitoring, people living near
volcanoes on their own, may
observe premonitory events
before an eruption such as
intensified steaming activity.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
3.) As the volcano unrest
progresses into an eruption,
volcanic earthquakes not only
increase in number but the
number of earthquakes felt by
many people become more
and more frequent.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
4.) Measuring the amount
of gases being emitted by
volcanoes is also an
important aspect of
volcano monitoring.
Identify whether the statement is true
or false.
5.) In visual observation, it is
not only the increase in
volume of steam that is
observed but the color of
steam, which might drastically
change from “white” to “dark
gray”.
Volcano Hazard Maps