UNIVERSITY OF PRISHTINA
‘’HASAN PRISHTINA’’
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBJECT: Introduction IWRM and Water Security
TITLE: Effects of water pollution on human health and heterogeneity of diseases
Assistant: Venera HAJDARI Student: Argjenda BERISHA
Prishtinë, 2024
Contents
• The importance of water
• Water pollution
• Sources of water pollution
• Types of diseases as a result of water pollution
• Fluoride contamination of water
• Fluoride as an element
• Fluoride in water
• Sources of fluoride contamination
• Remediation techniques for fluoride contamination
• Types of diseases as a result of fluoride contamination
• Fluoride contamination of water in Ireland
• Results and discussion
The importance of water
Water is an essential resource for human survival. It is one of the six essential nutrients, and has many
important roles in the body including: bringing nutrients to cells, getting rid of wastes, protecting joints and
organs, and maintaining body temperature.
Water is essential to improving nutrition, preventing disease and enabling health care. Aside from domestic
purposes, water is needed across all sectors of society, to produce food, energy, goods and services.
Billions of people worldwide still live without safely managed drinking water, safely managed sanitation and
basic hygiene services, especially in rural areas and least developed countries.
According to the 2023 World Water Development Report released by UNESCO, globally the use of water has
been increasing by roughly 1% per year over the last 40 years.
The overall global demand for water will continue to increase at an annual rate of about 1%, resulting in an
increase of between 20 to 30% by 2050. This trend has been driven by a combination of population growth,
socio-economic development and changing consumption patterns.
Water pollution
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms, contaminate a stream,
river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the
environment.
Water pollution can affect humans in two ways:
• Directly
• Indirectly
To address pollution and protect water we need to understand where the pollution is coming from:
• Point source pollution
• Non-point source pollution
• Transboundary pollution
And also what type of water body it being impacted:
• Groundwater
• Surface water
• Ocean water
Sources of water pollution
Water pollution are mainly concentrated in:
• industrialization,
• agricultural activities,
• natural factors,
• insufficient water supply and sewage
treatment facilities and
• human activities
Figure 1: Sources of water pollution
Types of diseases as a result of water pollution
According to the UN World Water Assessment Programme, about 2.3 billion people suffer from diseases
associated with polluted water, and more than 5 million people die from these illnesses each year.
Some of the main diseases associated with water pollution include:
Waterborne Infections:
• Cholera: Caused by the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, often transmitted through contaminated water.
Typhoid Fever: Resulting from the ingestion of water contaminated with the bacterium Salmonella Typhi.
Gastrointestinal Diseases:
• Diarrhea: Various pathogens present in contaminated water can lead to acute or chronic diarrhea. Around
1 million people are estimated to die each year from diarrhoea as a result of unsafe drinking-water, sanitation
and hand hygiene.
• Gastroenteritis: Inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by waterborne pathogens like
bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
Hepatitis:
• Hepatitis A: A viral infection affecting the liver, transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated water.
Dysentery:
• Amoebic Dysentery: Caused by the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, often associated with poor
water quality.
Schistosomiasis:
• An acute and chronic disease caused by Schistosoma worms, which can be present in contaminated
freshwater.
Fluorosis:
• Excessive fluoride in drinking water can cause dental and skeletal fluorosis, impacting teeth and bones.
Lead Poisoning:
• Contamination of water with lead, often from old plumbing systems, can lead to lead poisoning, affecting the
nervous system and other organs.
Mercury Poisoning:
• Mercury contamination in water bodies can lead to mercury poisoning, causing neurological and
developmental issues, especially in fetuses and young children.
Vector-Borne Diseases:
• Stagnant or polluted water can provide breeding grounds for disease vectors like mosquitoes, leading to the
spread of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
Cancer:
• Prolonged exposure to certain water pollutants, such as carcinogenic chemicals, may increase the risk of
developing various types of cancers. Arsenic, nitrate, chromium, etc. are highly associated with cancer.
Fluoride contamination of water
Fluoride as an element
Fluoride is a common halogen element with the symbol F and atomic number 9 that was discovered
in 1886 by French chemist Henri Moissan.
It ranks as the 13th most naturally occurring element on the planet Earth and is extensively dispersed in the
environment, constituting more than 0.32% of the Earth’s crust.
The presence of fluoride in water and its relationship between calcium and fluoride were first revealed by Hoag and
Snee in 1930 by using a spectrograph.
Based on its physical properties, fluoride is classified into three major types:
1. hydrogen fluoride (HF)
2. sodium fluoride (NaF)
3. fluorosilicic (H2SiF6)
Fluoride in water
In natural waters, fluoride occurs mainly as free fluoride ions through the complexes of Be, B, Al, and Si under
specific conditions.
In addition to natural sources, anthropogenic dispersal of fluoride occurs into the water via the aluminum and coal
industries, fertilizer use, and manufacturing processes.
The main factors that influence the higher concentration of fluoride in groundwater include climate, evaporation,
precipitation, geology, geomorphology, and hydrogeochemistry.
Evaporation, or evapotranspiration, is an important process that increases the fluoride concentration in
groundwater. Evaporation elevates the ion concentrations, leading to the precipitation of some major minerals and
reducing the Ca concentration.
Precipitation, dissolution, rock-water interactions, temperature, and pressure are the other factors that play
significant roles in the release of fluoride into groundwater.
Sources of fluoride contamination
The main sources of fluoride contamination
are classified into two categories:
- geogenic;
- anthropogenic.
Volcanic eruptions, hydrothermal activities,
and marine aerosols are some of the major
geogenic sources of fluoride contamination in
the groundwater.
The major anthropogenic cause is industrial
sources. Other anthropogenic sources include
coal burning, the production of coke, glass,
ceramics, and electronics; steel and aluminum
processing and pesticides; fertilizer; and
electroplating operations.
Figure 2: Sources of fluoride contamination
Remediation techniques for fluoride contamination
The methods used for the treatment of fluoride-contaminated groundwater are in-situ and ex-situ
methods that reduce fluoride content and bring it to a usable form.
In-situ Treatment Methods:
These methods are focused on:
- Check Dams
- Percolation Tank and Recharge Pits
Ex-situ Treatment Methods:
These methods are focused on:
- Adsorption
- Ion Exchange
- Coagulation-Precipitation
- Membrane Process
- Reverse Osmosis
- Nanofiltration
- Electrocoagulation Figure 3: Remediation techniques for fluoride removal
Types of diseases as a result of fluoride contamination
Fluoride causes both good and bad effects on the human body depending on the level of
exposure.
Excessive fluoride exposure, often through contaminated water sources, can lead to a
condition known as fluorosis.
The main health issues caused by high fluoride content are:
Dental Fluorosis:
It affects the teeth, causing changes in enamel formation. In mild cases, it may manifest as
white streaks or spots on the teeth. In severe cases, there may be brown discoloration and
pitting of the enamel.
Skeletal Fluorosis:
Prolonged exposure to high levels of fluoride can lead to skeletal fluorosis, which affects
the bones and joints. This condition can cause pain and limited joint movement. In severe
cases, it may lead to crippling deformities and osteosclerosis, or known as a thickening of
trabecular (spongy) bone.
Neural system:
When present in a concentration of more than < 1.5 mg/L, fluoride increases the chance of
neurotoxicity, which may disturb the learning and memorizing capacity.
Reproductive system:
Increased fluoride exposure is related to an increased luteinizing hormone level and follicle
stimulating hormone, decreased thyroid hormone, reduced estrogen level, and disturbed ratio of
estrogen receptor to androgen receptor.
Liver and Kidney:
When the three crucial parts of the body, namely the kidney, liver, and heart, are exposed to excess
fluoride concentrations for a long time, they start showing histopathological and functional changes.
Endocrine system:
Reduced thyroid function, increase in calcitonin activity, increase in parathyroid activity, secondary
hyperparathyroidism, and poor glucose tolerance are the principal effects of fluoride on the endocrine system (type II
diabetes).
Gastrointestinal system:
In acute fluoride poisoning, some of the gastrointestinal symptoms are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal
discomfort.
Other toxic effects:
Fluoride may produce a toxic effect on the human body in
several ways. Initially, fluoride acts on the intestinal mucosa,
but later, due to hydrofluoric acid formation in the abdomen, it
causes gastro-intestinal irritation or corrosive effects.
It's important to note that regulatory bodies in many countries
have established standards for fluoride levels in drinking
water
to prevent adverse health effects. These standards are
designed to ensure that fluoride concentrations are within
safe
limits.
According to the World Health Organization, the permissible
limit for the fluoride content of groundwater is < 1.5 mg/L. In
some regions, the concentration is multiple times higher than
the permissible limit, ranging up to 20 mg/L, causing multiple
health problems.
Figure 4: Effect of fluoride on human body
Fluoride contamination of water in Ireland
The majority of Western European countries have rejected water fluoridation. The only Western European country
with a mandatory water fluoridation policy is Ireland.
In Ireland, the fluoride level in water has been demonstrated to be in the range of approximately 0.8-1.5 mg/L, while
the fluoride concentration in tap water is roughly doubled to around 1.4 and 3 mg/L.
Based on this, data shows that approximately 73% of the population consumes artificially fluoridated water, and
40% of individuals in Ireland suffer from dental fluorosis.
It is also estimated that up to the age of 15, around 1% of children in Ireland may have developed moderate dental
fluorosis, while another 1% severe dental fluorosis.
When evaluating fluoride intake by an individual, factors such as the following should be taken into
consideration:
- The amount of water consumed per day.
- Fluoride intake from other consumed beverages like tea, coffee, or non-alcoholic drinks.
- Fluoride intake from other sources such as toothpaste or foods with high fluoride content.
Results and discussion
Poor drinking water quality can have significant impacts on human health, leading to various
diseases and health problems.
According to the World Health Organization survey,
- 80% of the world’s diseases and 50% of the world’s child deaths are related to poor drinking water quality, and
- more than 50 diseases caused by poor drinking water quality.
Contaminated water sources can harbor pathogens causing waterborne illnesses, while exposure to pollutants such as heavy
metals and industrial chemicals may lead to chronic conditions like cancer, reproductive issues, and neurological disorders.
According to the UN World Water Assessment Programme,
- about 2.3 billion people suffer from those diseases associated with polluted water, and
- more than 5 million people die from these illnesses each year.
It's important to note that the specific health effects can vary depending on the type and concentration of pollutants, as well as
individual susceptibility and exposure duration.
In controlled and monitored levels, fluoride is often added to drinking water to promote dental health by preventing
tooth decay.
However, excessive fluoride levels in drinking water, a condition known as fluorosis, can lead to various health
issues such as: Dental Fluorosis, Skeletal Fluorosis, Neurological Effects, Cardiovascular Effects, and some other
toxic effects.
Water authorities and health organizations often establish guidelines to ensure that fluoride levels in drinking water
remain within safe and beneficial ranges.
According to World Health Organization more than 100 countries are affected by fluoride contamination in
groundwater, exceeding the permissible limit < 1.5 mg/L. It is estimated that more than 2 million people in Europe
are potentially exposed to fluoride >1.5 mg/L in groundwater, which is about 0.3% of the total population.
Ireland is one of the only country in Europe with a policy of water fluoridation. However, there have been
discussions and debates regarding the continuation of this practice, and the Irish government had indicated a
commitment to reviewing and potentially ending the mandatory fluoridation of public water supplies.
There is a need to raise awareness in fluorosis-prone regions about the flouride contamination of water and its side
effects in human health.
The fluoride concentration limit of potable water for any region is based on its dietary habits, annual daily
temperature, nature, and level of exposure in the area.
Thank you for your attention!
