THERMODYNAMIC
S
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course focuses on the first thermodynamic properties, which are those that can be readily measured:
pressure, specific volume, and temperature; tables of thermodynamic properties; internal energy and
enthalpy in connection with the energy equation and the first law, entropy with the second law, and the
Helmholtz and Gibbs functions.
1. Basic Principles, Concepts, and Definitions
2. Conservation of Energy
3. The Ideal Gas Law
4. Processes of Ideal Gas
5. Gas Cycles
6. Internal Combustion Engines
7. Gas Compressors
Reference:
Sta. Maria, Hipolito B. Thermodynamics 1. Quezon City: National Book Store, Incorporated
2
Chapter 1.
BASIC PRINCIPLES,
CONCEPTS,
DEFINITIONS
3
“
Nothing in life is certain except
death, taxes, and the second law of
thermodynamics.
- Seth Lloyd
4
Chapter Content
1. Systems of Units
2. Acceleration, Mass, and Weight
3. Specific Volume, Density, and Specific
Weight
4. Pressure and Temperature
5. Conservation of Mass
5
THERMODYNAM
ICS
Thermodynamics is that branch of the physical sciences that treats
of various phenomena of energy and the related properties of
matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other
forms of energy and vice versa.
6
Newton’s Second Law
The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass
a = kF/m
where k is a proportionality constant.
7
Systems of Units
Systems of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system mks system fps system
1 dyne force accelerates 1 newton force 1 lb force accelerates 1
1 g mass at 1 cm/s2 accelerates 1 kg mass at slug mass at 1 ft/s2
1 m/s2
gm cm kgm m slug ft
k = 1 ------------- k = 1 --------------- k = 1 ---------------
dyne s2 newton s2 lbf s2
8
Systems of Units
Systems of units where k is not unity:
cgs system mks system fps system
1 g force accelerates 1 g 1 kg force accelerates 1 1 lb force accelerates 1
mass at 980.66 cm/s2 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2
gm cm kgm m lbm ft
k = 980.66 ------------ k = 9.8066 ------------ k = 32.174 ----------
g f s2 kgf s2 lbf s2
9
Acceleration
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body of
unit mass.
F = ma/k
10
Unit Relations
1 kgf = 9.8066 N
1 slug= 32.174 lbm
11
Unit Relations
1 poundal
= (1 lbm)(1 ft/s )
2
12
Mass and Weight
The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it. The
weight of a body means the force of gravity Fg on the body.
(m/k) = (F/a) =
(Fg/g) 13
SOLVED
PROBLEMS ON
MASS,
ACCELERATION
14
Problem 1:
Five masses in a region where g = 30.5 fps2 are as follows: m1 is
500 gm mass; m2 weighs 800 gf; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weighs
3 lbf; m5 is 0.1 slug of mass. What is the total mass expresses (a) in
grams, (b) in pounds, (c) in slugs.
g = (30.5 ft/s2) (12 in/ft) (2.54 cm/in) = 929.64 cm/s2
(a) m2 = (Fg2k)/g = (800 gf) [980.66 (gmcm)/(gfs2)] / (929.64 cm/s2)
= 843.9052 gm
15
m3 / k = (Fg3)/g = [15 (lbmft)/s2] / (30.5 ft/s2)
= (0.4918 lbm) (453.6 gm / lbm) = 223.0805 gm
m4 = (Fg4k)/g = (3 lbf) [32.174 (lbmft)/(lbfs2)] / (30.5 ft/s2)
= (3.1647 lbm) (453.6 gm /lbm) = 1435.5079 gm
m5 / k = (0.10 slug)(32.174 ft/s2)(453.6 gm /lbm) = 1459.4126 gm
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Total mass = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + m5
= 500 + 843.9052 + 223.0805 + 1435.5079 + 1459.4126
= 4461. 9062 gm
(b) Total mass = (4461. 9062 gm) / (453.6 gm /lbm) = 9.8367 lbm
(c) Total mass = (9.8367gm) / (32.174 lbm / slug) = 0.3057 slug
17
Problem 2:
For a ballistic study, a 1.9-gm bullet is fired into soft wood. The
bullet strikes the wood surface with a velocity of 380 m/s and
penetrates 0.15 m. find (a) the constant retarding force in N, (b) the
time required to stop the bullet, (c) the deceleration in m/s 2.
m = (1.9 g) / (1000 g/kg) = 0.0019 kg
V2 – V02 = 2as;
a = [(02 – 3802) m2/s2] / [2(0.15 m)] = – 481,333.33 m/s2
18
(a) F = ma = (0.0019 kg)(481,333.33 m/s2) = 914.533 N
(b) V= V0 + at; 0 = (380 m/s) + (– 481,333.33 m/s2) t
481,333.33 t = 380
Solving for the linear equation, then t = 7.8947 x 10 –4 s
(c) The deceleration is 431,333.33 m/s2
19
Problem 3:
A mass of 0.1 slug in space is subjected to an external vertical force
of 4lb. If the local gravity acceleration is g = 30.5 fps 2 and if
frictionless effects are neglected, determine the acceleration of the
mass if the external vertical force is acting (a) upward, (b)
downward.
g = Fg k / m
= (4 lbf) [32.174 (lbmft)/(lbfs2)] / [(0.1 slug) (32.174 lbm / slug)]
= 40 ft/s2
20
If the external vertical force is acting
(a) upward, the acceleration of the mass is
g = 40 – 30.5 = 9.5 ft/s2
(b) downward, the acceleration of the mass is
g = 40 + 30.5 = 70.5 ft/s2
21
Problem 4:
Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g =
32.088 fps2 and that its variation is –0.003 fps2 per 1000 ft ascent.
Find the height in miles above this point for which (a) the gravity
acceleration becomes 30.504 fps2, (b) the weight of a given man is
decreased by 5%, (c) What is the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the
29,131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?
(a) change in acceleration = 30.504 – 32.088 = –1.584 ft/s 2
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Height, h = (–1.584 ft/s2) / [(–0.003 ft/s2)/(1000 ft)]
= 528,000 ft = 100 miles
(b) Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level
(F/a) = (Fg/g); [(0.95 Fg) / a] = (Fg/g)
a = 0.95g = 0.95(32.088) = 30.484 ft/s2
change in acceleration = 30.484 – 32.088 = –1.604 ft/s 2
Height, h = (–1.604 ft/s2) / [(–0.003 ft/s2)/(1000 ft)]
= 534,666.67 ft = 101.263 miles
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(c) Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level
g = 32.088 fps2; m = 180 lbm
a = (32.088 ft/s2) + (29.131 ft) [(–0.003 ft/s2)/(1000 ft)]
= 32.000607 ft/s2
F = (ma)/k
= (180 lbm)(32.000607 ft/s2) / [32.174 (lbmft)/(lbfs2)]
= 179.0299 lbf
24
Density, Specific
Weight
The density r of a fluid is its mass per unit volume, while the
specific weight g is its weight per unit volume. In SI units will be in
kg/m3, which may also be expressed as units of Ns2/m4.
r = m/v, g =
Fg/v 25
Relation between r and
g
Since the specific weight g is to the local acceleration of gravity as
the density is to standard acceleration, the
g = rg/k
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Specific Volume
Specific volume n of a fluid is the volume occupied by a unit mass
of fluid. It is commonly applied to gases and is usually expressed in
m3/kg. Specific volume is the reciprocal of density. Thus
n = V/m = 1/r
27
SOLVED PROBLEMS
ON SP. VOLUME,
DENSITY, SP.
WEIGHT
28
Problem 5:
What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?
g = 9.8066 m/s2; r = 1000 kgm /m3
g = (rg)/k
= (1000 kgm /m3)(9.8066 m/s2) / [980.66 (gmcm)/(gfs2)]
= 1000 kgf /m3
29
Problem 6:
Two liquids of different densities (r1 = 1500 kg/m3, r2 = 500 kg/m3)
are poured together ito a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting
density of the mixture is 800kg/m3, find the respective amounts of
liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixture; local g = 9.675
m/s2.
v = (100 L) / (1000 L/m3) = 0.1 m3
Apply law of conservation of mass,
r1 v1 + r2 v2 = rmixture vmixture
1500 v1 + 500 v2 = 800 (0.1) = 80; but v1 + v2 = 0.1
30
Solve simultaneously these equations,
v1 = 0.03 m3 and v2 = 0.07 m3
Thus,
m1 = r1v1 = (1500 kg/m3)(0.03 m3 ) = 45 kg
m2 = r2v2 = (500 kg/m3)(0.07 m3 ) = 35 kg
weight of mixture,
Fg = (mg)/k
= (80 kgm)(9.675 m/s2) / [9.8066 (kgmm)/(kgfs2)]
= 78.926 lbf 31
Problem 7:
It is estimated that the mass of the earth is 5.98 x 10 24 kg; its mean
radius is 6.38 x 106 m. Find its density in kg/m3 and lb/ft3. Compare
this value to the density of water (62.4 lb/ft 3).
Vearth = (4/3) p r3 = (4/3)(6.38 x 106 m)3 p = 1.088 x 1021 m3
r = m/v = (5.9 x 1024 kg)/(1.088 x 1021 m3) = 5.496 x 103 kg/m3
=(5.496 x 103 kg/m3)(2.205 lb/kg)/(3.281ft/m)3 =343.113 lb/ft3
= rearth / rwater = (343.113 lb/ft3 )/(62.4 lb/ft3) = 5.499
32
The density of the earth is 5.5 times the density of water.
Atmospheric Pressure
760 mmHg; 29.92
inHg;
14.696 psia; 1 atm
33
Absolute Pressure
absolute pressure
p = p 0 + pg
+pg
atmospheric pressure
pg = 0, p = p0
p
vacuum – pg
p0 p = p 0 – pg
absolute pressure
p
zero absolute pressure or total vacuum
p = 0, pg = p0
34
SOLVED PROBLEMS
ON PRESSURE
35
Problem 8:
A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/m 3) is located
where g = 9.65 mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the column.
h0 = 30 m; r = 1878 kg/m3
pg = (rfluidg)(h0)
= (1878 kg/m3)(9.65m/s2)(30 m)
= 543,681 N/m2 = 543.681 kPa
36
Problem 9:
The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm 2. The barometric pressure of
the atmosphere is 768 mmHg. Find the absolute pressure in the
boiler.
pg = 9.5 kg/cm2; h0 = 768 mmHg = 0.768 mHg
At standard condition, gwater = 1000 kg/m3
p0 = (gHg)(h0) = (sHg)(gwater)(h0) = (13.55)(1000 kg/m3)(0.768 m)
= (10,406.4 kg/m2) / (100 cm/m)2 = 1.0406 kg/cm2
p = p0 + pg = 1.0414 + 9.5 = 10.5406 kg/cm2
37
Problem 10:
A weatherman carried an aneroid barometer from the ground floor
to his office atop the Sears Tower in Chicago. On the ground level,
the barometer read 30.150 inHg, abs; topside it read 28.607 inHg,
abs. Assume that the average atmospheric air density was 0.075
lb/ft3 and estimate the height of the building.
change in pressure level = 30.150 – 28.607 = 1.543 inHg
P0 = [(1.543 inHg)/(29.921 inHg/atm)] (14.696 psi/atm)
= (0. 7579 lbf/in2)(12 in/ft)2 = 109.1376 lbf/ft2
Height, h = P0/g = (109.1376 lbf/ft2)/(0.075 lb/ft3) = 1,455.168 ft
38
Problem 11:
A manometer containing water (density
= 62.1 lb/ft3) and mercury (specific
gravity = 13.55) connects two pressure
regions A and B as shown in the figure.
The local gravity acceleration is g =
32.00 fps2. If pB = 50 psig, find pA.
pB = (50 lbf/in2)(12 in/ft)2 = 7,200 lbf/ft2
h1 = (15 in)(12 in/ft) = 1.25 ft; h2 = 1.67
ft; h3 = 5.0 ft
39
p1 = (62.1 lbm/ft3)(32.0 ft/s2)(1.25 ft)/[32.174 (lbmft)/(lbfs2)]
= 77.0252 lbf /ft2
p2 = (62.1 lbm/ft3)(13.55)(32.0 ft/s2)(1.67 ft) /[ 32.174 (lbmft)/(lbfs2)]
= 1397.6302 lbf /ft2
p3 = (62.1 lbm/ft3)(32.0 ft/s2)(5.0 ft)/[32.174 (lbmft)/(lbfs2)]
= 308.8208 lbf /ft2
pB – p 1 + p 2 – p 3 = p A ;
pA = 7,200 – 77.0252 + 1,397.6302 – 308.8208 = 8211.7574
40
= (8211.7574 lbf /ft2)/(12 in/ft)2 = 57.026 lb/in2, gage
Absolute Temperature
TR = TF + 460
TK = TC + 273
41
Unit Relation
180 F = 100 C
42
SOLVED PROBLEM
ON TEMPERATURE
43
Problem 12:
A Fahrenheit and a Celsius thermometer are both immersed in a
fluid. If the two numerical readings are identical, what is the
temperature of the fluid expressed as R? as K?
TC = TF; TF = (9/5) TC + 32
TC = (9/5) TC + 32
(– 4/5) TC = 32
TC = –40 C and TF = –40 F
Thus, TR = 420 R and TK = 233 K
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Conservation of Mass
The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.
The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the
formula
= Au
45
= Aur
where = volume flow rate
A = cross sectional area of the stream
u = average speed
= mass flow rate
46
SOLVED PROBLEMS
ON CONSERVATION
OF MASS
47
Problem 13:
Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single
mixture. These data apply at the entrance section:
For one gas, A1 = 75 in2, u1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb
For the other gas, A2 = 50 in2, = 16.67 lb/s, r2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At the exit, u3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb
Find (a) the speed u2 at section 2, and
(b) the flow and area at the exit section
48
(a) u2 = 2 /(A2r2) = (16.67 lb/s)/{[(50 in2)/(12in/ft)2]/(0.12 lb/ft3)}
= 400 ft/s
(b) 1 = (A1u1)/v1 = {[(75 in2)/(12in/ft)2](500 ft/s)}/(10 ft3/lb)
= 26.04 lb/s
(c) 3 = 1 + 2 = 26.04 + 16.67 = 42.71 lb/s
A3 = (3v3)/u3 = [(42.71 lb/s)(7 ft3/lb)] / (350 ft/s)
= 0.8542 ft2
49
Problem 14:
A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height
vertical tank is receiving water (r
= 62.1 lb/ft3) at the rate of 300
gpm and is discharging through a
6-in ID line with constant speed of
5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is
half full. Find the water level and
the mass change in the tank 15 min
later.
r = 6 in = 0.5 ft;
v = 5 ft/s = 300 ft/min
50
Area = (p/4)(10 ft)2 = 78.54 ft2
Mass flow rate entering = [(300 gal/min)/(7.46 gal/ft 3)](62.1 lb/ft3)
= 2,490.6 lb/min
Mass flow rate leaving = Aur
= (p/4)(0.5 ft)2 (300 ft/min)(62.1 lb/ft3) = 3658 lb/min
mass change = [(3658 – 2490.6) lb/min] (15 min) =17,511 lb
volume change = (17511 ln)/(62.1 lb/ft3) = 282 ft3
decreased in height = (282 ft3)/(78.54 ft2) = 3.59 ft
Water level after 15 min = 7.5 – 3.59 = 3.91 ft 51
THANK
S!
Any questions?
You can find me at
[email protected] 52
