Internet Working:

How networks differ

How networks can be connected
Tunneling
Fragmentation
Internet Control protocols
 INTERNETWORKING
Until now, we have implicitly assumed that there is a single homogeneous
network, with each machine using the same protocol in each layer.
Unfortunately, this assumption is widely optimistic. Many different network
exist, including PAN’s, LAN’s, MAN’s and WAN’s.
We have described Ethernet, Internet over cable, the fixed and mobile
telephone networks, 802.11, 802.16, and more. Numerous protocols are in
widespread use across these networks in every layer. In the following
sections, we will take a careful look at the issues that arise when two or
more networks are connected to form an internetwork, or more simply an
internet.
It would be much simpler to join networks together if everyone used a
single networking technology, and it is often the case that there is a
dominant kind of network, such as Ethernet. Some pundits speculate that
the multiplicity of technologies will go away as soon as everyone realizes
how wonderful [fill in your favorite network] is. Do not count on it.
 LOCAL AREA NETWORK(LAN)
Local Area Network is a group of
computers connected to each other in a
small area such as buildings, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or more
personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair,
coaxial cable,
It is less etc.as it is built with inexpensive
costly
hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

Local Area Network provides higher security.

A local area network may serve as few as two or three users in a home office
or thousands of users in a corporation's central office.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF LAN
Data protection and Fast Communication :
It is more safe and secure to keep information on the server. And if you
wish to update or eliminate any data, you may do so rapidly on a single
server computer, and other devices will be able to obtain the new
information. You may very well grant or deny access to particular users,
guaranteeing that only approved users have accessibility to the network’s
data. LAN-connected systems or devices communicate directly at very high
rates of speed, based on the LAN model and ethernet cabling installed. The
most prevalent enabled speeds are 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1000 Mbps.
All devices may be disproportionately affected if the server fails:
If a file on the server gets heavily damaged or a hard disc crashes, all of
the linked PCs will have extreme difficulty operating correctly.
 PERSONAL AREA NETWORK(PAN)
Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters.
Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to
bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

 A PAN provides data transmission among devices such as computers,

smartphones, tablets and personal digital assistants.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF PAN

Advantages:
It is easy to use.
Affordable cost.
It used in the TV remote, AC remotes, etc.
DISADVANTAGES:
PAN has a limited range.
The device with inbuilt WPAN is more expensi
It can only be used for the personal area.
 Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
A metropolitan area network is a network
that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a
larger network.
Government agencies use MAN to connect to
the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each
other through a telephone exchange line.
The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc. A Metropolitan Area Network can range in size
from 5 to 50 km.
It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
It can be used in a college within a city.
It can also be used for communication in the military.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF MAN

ADVANTAGES:
It can send data in both directions at the same time.
Metropolitan Area Network allows people to connect LANs.
Metropolitan Area Network usually encompasses several city blocks or an entire city.

DISADVANTAGES:
The data rate is slow in a Metropolitan Area Network compared to LAN.
Compared to LAN, more cable is required to set up a Metropolitan Area Network.
This network’s implementation and management costs are higher than
those of a local area network.
 WIDE AREA NETWORK(WAN)
A Wide Area Network is a network that
extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
A Wide Area Network is quite bigger
network than the LAN.

A Wide Area Network is not limited to a

single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line,
fibre optic cable or satellite links.
The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,

and education.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF WAN
ADVANTAGES:
Easy of communication
It supports the global market and global business
Large network cover
Share information over the large area

DISADVANTAGES:
It is slow in speed
It is difficult to maintain the network
Maintenance and Security problem
Require high-performance device
 ETHERNET
Ethernet is the traditional
technology for connecting devices in a
wired local area network (LAN) or
wide area network (WAN). It enables
devices to communicate with each
other via a protocol, which is a set of
rules or common network language.
Ethernet describes how network devices
format and transmit data so other devices on
the same LAN or campus network can
recognize, receive and process the
information. An Ethernet cable is the
physical, encased wiring over which the data
travels
Connected devices that use cables to access a geographically localized
network -- instead of a wireless connection -- likely use Ethernet. From
businesses to gamers, diverse end users rely on the benefits of Ethernet
connectivity, which include reliability and security.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAES
OF ETHRENET
ADVANTAGES:
It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network. As compared to other
systems of connecting computers, it is relatively inexpensive.
Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses firewalls in
terms of data security.
In this network, the quality of the data transfer does maintain.

DISADVANTAGES:
If you create a wired ethernet network that needs cables, hubs, switches,
routers, they increase the cost of installation.
The wired Ethernet network restricts you in terms of distances, and it is
best for using in short distances.
Tunneling
 Introduction:-
 Tunneling is a protocol for transferring data securely from one network to another.
Using a method known as encapsulation, Tunneling allows private network
communications to be sent across a public network, such as the Internet. Encapsulation
enables data packets to appear general to a public network when they are private data
packets, allowing them to pass unnoticed.

 When data is tunneled, it is split into smaller parts called packets, as it travels through
the tunnel. The packets are encrypted via the tunnel, and another process known
as encapsulation takes place. For transmission, private network data and protocol details
are encased in public network transmission units. The units have the appearance of
public data, allowing them to be sent via the Internet. Encapsulation enables packets to
reach their intended destination. De-capsulation and decryption take place at the final
destination.
• To send an IP packet to a host in the London office, a
host in the Paris office constructs the packet
containing an IPv6 address in London, and sends it to
the multiprotocol router that connects the Paris IPv6
network to the IPv4 Internet. When this router gets
the IPv6 packet, it encapsulates the packet with an
IPv4 header addressed to the IPv4 side of the
multiprotocol router that connects to the London IPv6
net- work. That is, the router puts a (IPv6) packet
inside a (IPv4) packet. When this wrapped packet
arrives, the London router removes the original IPv6
packet and sends it onward to the destination host.
Advantage of Tunneling :-
 Tunneling is often used in virtual private
networks (VPNs). It can also set up efficient
and secure connections between networks,
enable the usage of unsupported network
protocols, and in some cases allow users to
bypass firewalls.
Disadvantage of Tunneling :-
 Cost and Time: As compared to the open-
cut method the initial costing for
commencing a tunnel is higher.
 Also, the construction requires much more
time than the open-cut method.
FRAGMENTATION
Fragmentation is done by the network layer when
the maximum size of datagram is greater than
maximum size of data that can be held in a frame
i.e., its Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU).

• The network layer divides the datagram received

from the transport layer into fragments so that data
flow is not disrupted.
It is done by the network layer at the destination side and is usually done at
routers.

•Source side does not require fragmentation due to wise (good)

segmentation by transport layer i.e. instead of doing segmentation at the
transport layer and fragmentation at the network layer

• The transport layer looks at datagram data limit and frame data limit and
does segmentation in such a way that resulting data can easily fit in a frame
without the need of fragmentation.
•Receiver identifies the frame with the identification (16 bits)
field in the IP header. Each fragment of a frame has the same
identification number.

•Receiver identifies the sequence of frames using the fragment offset(13

bits) field in the IP header

•Overhead at the network layer is present due to the extra header

introduced due to fragmentation.
•Fields in IP header for fragmentation –
Identification (16 bits) – use to identify fragments of the same frame.
•Fragment offset (13 bits) – use to identify the sequence of fragments in the
frame. It generally indicates a number of data bytes preceding or ahead of
the fragment.
•Maximum fragment offset possible = (65535 – 20) = 65515
{where 65535 is the maximum size of datagram and 20 is the minimum size
of IP header}
•So, we need ceil(log265515) = 16 bits for a fragment offset but the fragment
offset field has only 13 bits. So, to represent efficiently we need to scale
down the fragment offset field by 216/213 = 8 which acts as a scaling factor.
Hence, all fragments except the last fragment should have data in multiples
of 8 so that fragment offset ∈ N.
•More fragments (MF = 1 bit) – tells if more fragments are ahead of this
fragment i.e. if MF = 1, more fragments are ahead of this fragment and if MF
= 0, it is the last fragment.
•Don’t fragment (DF = 1 bit) – if we don’t want the packet to be fragmented
then DF is set i.e. DF = 1.
Fragmentation is an unwanted problem where the memory blocks cannot be
allocated to the processes due to their small size and the blocks remain
unused. It can also be understood as when the processes are loaded and
removed from the memory they create free space or hole in the memory and
these small blocks cannot be allocated to new upcoming processes and
results in inefficient use of memory.

Basically, there are two types of fragmentation:

1)Internal Fragmentation
2)External Fragmentation
Internal Fragmentation:-
In this fragmentation, the process is allocated a memory block of size more than
the size of that process. Due to this some part of the memory is left unused and
this cause internal fragmentation.

External Fragmentation:-
In this fragmentation, although we have total space available that is needed
by a process still we are not able to put that process in the memory because
that space is not contiguous. This is called external fragmentation.
Internet Control Protocols
ADDRESS MAPPING

The delivery of a packet to a host or a router requires

two levels of addressing: logical and physical.. We need
to be able to map a logical address to its corresponding
physical address and vice versa. This can be done by
using either static or dynamic mapping..
Internet Control Protocols
There are several control protocols used in the network
layer .They are:-
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
BOOTP
DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol)
Mapping Logical to Physical Address :ARP
• Anytime a host or a router has an IP datagram to send to another host or
router, it has the logical (IP) address of the receiver.
• The logical (IP) address is obtained from the DNS (Domain Name
System),if the sender is the host.
• But the IP datagram must be encapsulated in a frame to be able to pass
through the physical network. This means that the sender needs the physical
address(MAC) of the receiver.
• The host or the router sends an ARP query packet. The packet includes the
physical(MAC) and logical(IP) addresses of the sender and the logical(IP)
address of the receiver.
• Because the sender does not know the physical address(MAC) of the
receiver, the query is broadcast over the network.
 Every host or router on the network receives and processes the ARP query
packet, but only the intended recipient recognizes its corresponding
logical (IP) address and sends back an ARP response/reply packet.
 The response packet contains the recipient's logical(IP) and physical
(MAC) addresses.
 The packet is unicast (i.e) it is only received to the sender/host directly.
 After receiving the (MAC) address,now the sender can send the
information/data in the form of packets to the receiver.
Figure 21.1 ARP operation
• System A needs to pass the packet to its data link layer for the actual
delivery, but it does not know the physical address of the recipient.
• It uses the services of ARP by asking the ARP protocol to send a
broadcast ARP request packet to ask for the physical address of a system
with an IP address of 141.23.56.23.
• This packet is received by every system on the physical network, but
only system B will answer it, as shown in Figure 21.1 b.
• System B sends an ARP reply packet that includes its physical address.
Now system A can send all the packets it has for this destination by using
the physical address it received.
 Cache Memory

• Using ARP is inefficient if system A needs to broadcast an ARP request

for each IP packet it needs to send to system B.
• ARP can be useful if the ARP reply is cached (kept in cache memory for
a while) because a system normally sends several packets to the same
destination.
• A system that receives an ARP reply stores the mapping in the cache
memory and keeps it for 20 to 30 minutes unless the space in the cache is
exhausted.
• Before sending an ARP request, the system first checks its cache to see if
it can find the mapping.
ARP packet Fields
• Hardware type: This is a 16-bit field defining the type of the network on
which ARP is running. Each LAN has been assigned an integer based on
its type. For example, Ethernet is given type 1. ARP can be used on any
physical network.
• Protocol type: This is a 16-bit field defining the protocol. For example,
the value of this field for the IPv4 protocol is 080016, ARP can be used
with any higher-level protocol.
• Hardware length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the physical
address in bytes. For example, for Ethernet the value is 6.
• Protocol length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the logical
address in bytes. For example, for the IPv4 protocol the value is 4.
• Operation: This is a 16-bit field defining the type of packet. Two packet
types are defined: ARP request (1) and ARP reply (2).
• Sender hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the
physical address of the sender. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6
bytes long.
• Sender protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the
logical (for example, IP) address of the sender. For the IP protocol, this
field is 4 bytes long.
• Target hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the
physical address of the target. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6
bytes long. For an ARP request message, this field is all 0’s because the
sender does not know the physical address of the target.
• Target protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the
logical (for example, IP) address of the target. For the IPv4 protocol,
this field is 4 bytes long
Figure 21.2 ARP packet
Encapsulation of ARP packets
 An ARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data link frame. For
example, in Figure 21.3 an ARP packet is encapsulated in an Ethernet
frame. Note that the type field indicates that the data carried by the frame
are an ARP packet.
 Operation:
 1.The sender knows the IP address of the target. We will see how the sender
obtains this shortly.
 2. IP asks ARP to create an ARP request message, filling in the sender
physical address, the sender IP address, and the target IP address. The target
physical address field is filled with Os.
 3. The message is passed to the data link layer where it is encapsulated in a
frame by using the physical address of the sender as the source address and
the physical broadcast address as the destination address.
 4. Every host or router receives the frame. Because the frame contains a
broadcast destination address, all stations remove the message and pass it to
ARP. All machines except the one targeted drop the packet. The target
machine recognizes its IP address.
 5. The target machine replies with an ARP reply message that contains its
physical address. The message is unicast.
 6. The sender receives the reply message. It now knows the physical address
of the target machine.
 7. The IP datagram, which carries data for the target machine, is now
encapsulated in a frame and is unicast to the destination
Figure 21.3 Encapsulation of ARP packet
Figure 21.4 Four cases using ARP
Note

An ARP request is broadcast;

An ARP reply is unicast.
Types of ARP:
1) Proxy ARP
2) Reverse ARP
3) Gratuitous ARP
4) Inverse ARP
Proxy ARP:
 A technique called proxy ARP is used to create a subnetting effect. A
proxy ARP is an ARP that acts on behalf of a set of hosts.
 Whenever a router running a proxy ARP receives an ARP request looking
for the IP address of one of these hosts, the router sends an ARP reply
announcing its own hardware (physical-MAC) address.
 After the router receives the actual IP packet, it sends the packet to the
appropriate host or router.
Figure 21.6 Proxy ARP

21.44
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) helps find the MAC (Media Access
Control) address given the system’s IP address.
 The ARP’s main task is to convert the 32-bit IP address (for Ipv4) to a 48-
bit MAC address.
 It is also used when one device wants to communicate with some other
device on a local network.
Important ARP terms:
 ARP request: Broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether
we came across the destination MAC address or not.
 ARP response/reply: The MAC address response that the source receives
from the destination aids in further communication of the data.
 ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the
cache stored in a table for future reference. The subsequent
communications can use the MAC address from the table.
 Mapping Physical to Logical Address: RARP,
BOOTP, and DHCP
 There are occasions in which a host knows its physical address, but needs
to know its logical address. This may happen in two cases:
1. A diskless station is just booted. The station can find its physical address
by checking its interface, but it does not know its IP address.
2. An organization does not have enough IP addresses to assign to each
station; it needs to assign IP addresses on demand. The station can send
its physical address and ask for a short time lease.
 RARP
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) finds the logical address(IP) for a machine
that knows only its physical address(MAC).
 Each host or router is assigned one or more logical (IP) addresses, which are unique and
independent of the physical (hardware) address of the machine.
 To create an IP datagram, a host or a router needs to know its own IP address or addresses.
The IP address of a machine is usually read from its configuration file stored on a disk file.
However, a diskless machine is usually booted from ROM, which has minimum booting
information.
 The ROM is installed by the manufacturer. It cannot include the IP address because the IP
addresses on a network are assigned by the network administrator.
 The machine can get its physical address (by reading its NIC, for example), which is unique
locally. It can then use the physical address to get the logical address by using the RARP
protocol.
 A RARP request is created and broadcast on the local network. Another machine on the
local network that knows all the IP addresses will respond with a RARP reply.
 The requesting machine must be running a RARP client program,
the responding machine must be running a RARP server
program.
 There is a serious problem with RARP,(i.e) Broadcasting is done at the data
link layer. The physical broadcast address, allis in the case of Ethernet, does
not pass the boundaries of a network.
 This means that if an administrator has several networks or several subnets, it
needs to assign a RARP server for each network or subnet. This is the reason
that RARP is almost obsolete. Two protocols, BOOTP and DHCP, are
replacing RARP.
 BOOTP
 The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a client/server protocol designed to
provide physical address(MAC) to logical address(IP) mapping. BOOTP is
an application layer protocol.
 The administrator may put the client and the server on the same network or
on different networks, as shown in Figure 21.7.
 BOOTP messages are encapsulated in a UDP packet, and the UDP packet
itself is encapsulated in an IP packet.
 The reader may ask how a client can send an IP datagram when it knows
neither its own IP address (the source address) nor the server's IP address
(the destination address). The client simply uses all 0’s as the source address
and all 1’s as the destination address.
 One of the advantages of BOOTP over RARP is that the client and server
are application-layer processes. As in other application-layer processes, a
client can be in one network and the server in another, separated by several
other networks. However, there is one problem that must be solved.
The BOOTP request is broadcast because the client does not know the
IP address of the server. A broadcast IP datagram cannot pass through
any router. To solve the problem, there is a need for an intermediary.
 One of the hosts (or a router that can be configured to operate at the
application layer) can be used as a relay. The host in this case is called a
relay agent. The relay agent knows the unicast address of a BOOTP
server. When it receives this type of packet, it encapsulates the message
in a unicast datagram and sends the request to the BOOTP server.
 The packet, carrying a unicast destination address, is routed by any
router and reaches the BOOTP server. The BOOTP server knows the
message comes from a relay agent because one of the fields in the
request message defines the IP address of the relay agent. The relay
agent, after receiving the reply, sends it to the BOOTP client
Figure 21.7 BOOTP client and server on the same and different networks
 DHCP
 BOOTP is not a dynamic configuration protocol. When a client requests its IP address,
the BOOTP server consults a table that matches the physical address of the client with its IP
address. This implies that the binding between the physical address and the IP address of
the client already exists.
 The binding is predetermined. However, what if a host moves from one physical network
to another? What if a host wants a temporary IP address?
 BOOTP cannot handle these situations because the binding between the physical and IP
addresses is static and fixed in a table until changed by the administrator. BOOTP is a static
configuration protocol.
 The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) has been devised to provide static and
dynamic address allocation that can be manual or automatic.
 Static Address Allocation: In this capacity DHCP acts as BOOTP does. It is backward
compatible with BOOTP, which means a host running the BOOTP client can request a static
address from a DHCP server. A DHCP server has a database that statically binds physical
addresses to IP addresses.
 Dynamic Address Allocation DHCP has a second database with a pool of
available IP addresses. This second database makes DHCP dynamic. When a
DHCP client requests a temporary IP address, the DHCP server goes to the
pool of available (unused) IP addresses and assigns an IP address for a
negotiable period of time.
 Manual and Automatic Configuration One major problem with the
BOOTP protocol is that the table mapping the IP addresses to physical
addresses needs to be manually configured.
 This means that every time there is a change in a physical or IP address, the
administrator needs to manually enter the changes.
 DHCP, on the other hand, allows both manual and automatic configurations.
 Static addresses are created manually.
Dynamic addresses are created automatically.
Note:

DHCP provides static and dynamic

address allocation that can be mannual
or automatic.
ICMP
The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-
correcting mechanism. The IP protocol also lacks a
mechanism for host and management queries.. The
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) has been
designed to compensate for the above two deficiencies..
It is a companion to the IP protocol.
ICMP Message Types
Figure 21.8 General format of ICMP messages
Note:

ICMP always reports error messages

to the original source.
Figure 21.9 Error-reporting messages
Note:
Important points about ICMP error messages:
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated in response to a
datagram carrying an ICMP error message.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated
for a fragmented datagram that is not the first fragment.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated
for a datagram having a multicast address.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for
a datagram having a special address such
as
127.0.0.0 or 0.0.0.0.
Figure 21.10 Contents of data field for the error messages
Figure 21.12 Query messages
IGMP
The IP protocol can be involved in two types of
communication: unicasting and multicasting. The
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is one
of the necessary, but not sufficient, protocols that is
involved in multicasting.. IGMP is a companion to the
IP protocol.
Figure 21.16 IGMP message types
Figure 21.17 IGMP message format
Figure 21.20 Encapsulation of IGMP packet
ICMPv6
We discussed IPv6 in Chapter 20.. Another protocol
that has been modified in version 6 of the TCP/IP
protocol suite is ICMP (ICMPv6).. This new version
follows the same strategy and purposes of version 4.
Figure 21.23 Comparison of network layers in version 4 and version 6
Table 21.3 Comparison of error-reporting messages in ICMPv4 and ICMPv6
Table 21.4 Comparison of query messages in ICMPv4 and ICMPv6