Switchgear & Protection

Prof.Uma S.Patil
Switchgear & Protection
Government College Of Engineering Karad
(Electrical Engineering Department)
 Introduction
1. Significance of switchgear, protection & power systems.
2. Location of switchgear in typical power system(Single line
diagram)
3. Substation equipments
4. Faults & abnormal conditions
5. Fault calculations
6. The fault clearing process
7. Protective relaying
8. Neutral grounding & equipment grounding
9. Over voltages & Insulation co-ordination.
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 Causes of Electrical Faults
1. Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt
deposition on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on
transmission lines, etc. These environmental conditions interrupt the power
supply and also damage electrical installations.
2. Equipment failures: Various electrical equipments like generators, motors,
transformers, reactors, switching devices, etc causes short circuit faults due to
malfunctioning, ageing, insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures
result in high current to flow through the devices or equipment which further
damages it.
Failure of conducting path due to break in a conductor is a type of fault.
3. Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as
selecting improper rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or
electrical conducting parts after servicing or maintenance, switching the circuit
while it is under servicing, etc.
4. Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the
overhead lines results in spark between the lines or between conductors to
insulator. This flashover causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to
high voltages.
Weather Conditions
Equipment failures
Smoke of fires
Symmetrical Faults
Unsymmetrical Faults
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 Switchgear and Protection
Switchgear:
It is a general term covering a wide range of equipment concerned with
switching and protection. All equipment associated with fault clearing
process are covered by the term switchgear. Switchgear includes switches,
fuses, circuit breaker, isolator, control panels, lighting arrestor, CT, PT and
various associated equipment
 Switchgear and Protection
Control Gear:
It is used for switching and controlling power consuming devices. It is a
form of switching device capable of make and break the current in one or
more electric circuit such as relay.

Circuit Breaker (CB):

A device capable of making, breaking an electric circuit under normal and
abnormal conditions such short circuits.
It has 2 Basic function:
• switching during normal operating condition for operation and
maintenance
• switching during abnormal condition for interrupting the fault current
caused by short circuits.
 Switchgear and Protection
Switchgear are necessary at every switching point in a power system.
Between the generating station and final load point, there are several
voltages and fault levels. Hence in various application, the requirement of
the switchgear vary depending upon the location, ratting and local
requirement.

Single pole CB:

In this breaker fault current interrupting mechanism is involved with one
phase. It is used in an isolated system.

Triple Pole CB:

Fault interrupting is involved with three phase in the system. It is used in a
integrated system but has a disadvantage as it creates unsymmetrical
situation in the system inherently.
 Switchgear and Protection
CB has two states only
• Close
• Open

Under normal operating condition its operation can be manual or can be

automatic remotely.

During fault condition its operation must be automatic. Opening mechanism

is responsible for this automatic operation
 Classification of Protective Relays
Based on Technology:-
I. Electromechanical relays(First Generation)
a)Electromagnetic b) Thermal
II. Static relays(Second)
III. Numerical relays(Third)
Based on speed of operation:-
IV. Instantaneous relays
V. Time-delay relays
VI. High-speed relays
VII. Ultra high-speed relays
Based on their functions
VIII. Over current relays
IX. Under voltage relays
X. Impedance relays
XI. Under frequency relays
XII. Directional relays
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Electromechanical Relay

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 Numerical Relay
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Numerical Relay internal diagram

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 FPGA Based Relay

Field programmable Gate Array

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 DSP Based Relay

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 EMS

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Electronic Device
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 Switchgear and Protection
The sequence of function during abnormal condition

• Fault occurs • Fault occurs

1 1

• Relay senses the fault and close the trip

2 circuit • Relay senses
2
• Energizes the trip coil (solenoid) and
3 unlatch the spring • Operating
Summary mechanism starts
3
• Contact starts to apart and arc is drawn
4 between the contact in CB
• Arc extinguishes
• Arc is extinguished at the instant when 4
5 the fault ac current becomes zero

• fault cleared
• Fault interrupts is completed i.e. fault is
5
6 cleared
37
When the fault occurs
• the relay (2) connected to CT (8) and
PT (7) actuates and close its contact (6)
• Current flows from the battery (5) in
the trip circuit (4)
• Trip coil (3) is energized and CB (1)
operating mechanism is actuated.
• Auxiliary contact (a) can be used for
interlocking the CN with other
equipment to avoid enormous
operation.
Components of S/S
Components of S/S
Components of S/S
 Electrical path through substation

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#Equipment
Metal Clad Switchgear
Isolator
Isolator
Isolator
Over current Relay

50
 Over current Relay
A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value, is
called an over current relay.
The value of the preset current above which the relay operates is known as its pick-up
value.
Time-Current characteristics
1. Definite-time Over current Relay-
A definite-time over current relay operates after a predetermined time, when the
current exceeds its pick-up value.
2. Instantaneous Over current Relay-
An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when the current exceeds its
pick up value. The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the
current.
3.Inverse-time Over current Relay-An inverse-time over current relay operates when
the current exceeds its pick-up value. The operating time depends upon the
magnitude of operating current.
4.Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over current (I.D.M.T.) Relay-
This type of relay gives an inverse-time current characteristics at lower values of
the fault current and definite-time characteristics at higher values of the fault
current.
5.Very Inverse-time Over current Relay-
6.Extremely Inverse-time over current Relay- 51
 Over current Protective schemes
1.Time graded systems

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Combination of both 56
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Relay Coordination

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It is a safety device used in electrical installations with high earth impedance. It detects
small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment. The result is to
interrupt the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected. The EFR is protected against
tripping from transients and prevents shock.
 Transformer Protection Method
No. Fault Type Protection used
Primary winding Phase-
1. Differential; Overcurrent
Phase fault
Primary winding Phase-
2. Differential; Overcurrent
Earth fault
Secondary winding Phase-
3. Differential
Phase fault

Secondary winding Phase- Differential; Restricted Earth

4.
Earth fault Fault (REF)
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Frame Leakage relay
Distribution pole
Utilities of Pole parts
Utilities of Pole parts
Components of S/S
Overhead line
Single Phase Residential service
Three phase from one transformer
Distribution transformer
Distribution transformer
Design of line
Misplaced Insulator
Transmission tower
Sub transmission tower
 Right of Way
The right of way is a strip of land where the transmission
line is constructed, erected, operated and maintain.
Transmission Line Right of Way in Meters
Voltage

110 kV 22

132 kV 27

220 kV 35

400 kV S / C ( Single
Circuit ) 46

86
Transmission tower
Symbols Utilized in SLD
Symbols Utilized in SLD
Symbols Utilized in SLD
Single Bus bar arrangement
Single Bus bar arrangement
Key Diagram of Substation
The system architecture of the substation automation system in the 220 kV-
132 kV transmission substation. ---
Protection of Zone
Types of Circuit breaker
MCB
 MCB
•Basic Principle of MCB
•Hardware circuit of MCB
•Types of MCB
 Circuit breaker
•Purpose of CB
-Break the power flow
-Contain the arcing within its
chamber and extinguish it
-Animation of CB
 ACB

Arc chute is a set parallel and mutually insulated metal plates

that can extinguish an electric arc. It is also known
as arc splitter or arc divider.
Working principle of air blast CB
 Arc Phenomenon
•When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated, there is a
luminous electric discharge between these two contacts known as
‘Arc’.
•This arc may continue until the discharge ceases.
•The production of arc may delay the current interruption process
and generate enormous heat which may cause serious damage to
system or to circuit breaker itself.
•Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the
arc within the shortest possible time.

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 Fault Circuit

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 How does Arc produce
•When a fault occurs a heavy current flows through the contact of
circuit breaker.
• When the contacts begin to separate, the contacts area decreases
rapidly which causes high increases in fault current density and
hence rise in temperature.
•When the contacts are separate, a potential difference is created
between them. If the voltage between contacts is more than
dielectric strength of medium between contacts (usually the
medium is air or oil), it may sufficient to ionize the medium
between contacts.
•The ionized air or vapour act as a conducting path and hence the
arc is structed between contacts.
 How does Arc produce
•The voltage that appears across the contact of circuit breaker
during arcing periods is called Arc voltage.
•The arc between contacts act as conductor and persist a
resistance value known as arc resistance. Current flowing
between the contacts depend on the earth resistance.
– Greater the arc resistance, smaller the current that flows
between contacts.
Arc resistance depend upon flowing factors
1. Degree of ionization: As the ionized particle between
contacts is decreases, the arc resistance increases.
2. Length of arc: As the separation between contact increases,
the length of arc also increases which results in increase in arc
resistance.
3. Cross section area of arc: The earth resistance increases
with the decrease in area of cross section of the arc.
Factor responsible for maintaining arc
There are two main factors responsible for maintaining arc
between the contacts. These are
1. Potential difference between contacts: When the contacts
have small separation, then the potential difference between
them is sufficient to maintain the arc.
2. The ionized particles between contacts: The ionized
particles between contacts act as charge carriers and offers
conducting the path.
First way is to separate the contacts to such a distance that
potential difference becomes insufficient to maintain the arc.
However, this method is impossible in higher voltage system
where a separation of many meters may be required.
Second way to extinguish the arc between contact may achieved
by cooling the arc by removing the arc particle from the space
between contacts.
 Method of Arc extinction
High resistance method
In this method, the arc resistance is increases gradually so that current is reduced to such
a value that heat is insufficient to maintain the arc.
Consequently, the current is interrupted or the arc is extinguish. But in this method, majo
work is to increase resistance between contacts. Resistance of arc may be increased by
1. Lengthimg the arc: As length of arc increases, the arc resistance also increases. The
length of arc can be increased by increasing the gap between contacts.
2. Cooling of arc: Cooling help in de-ionisation of the medium between the contacts.
This increases the arc resistance and remove the heat from arc.
3. Reducing cross sectional area of arc: By reducing the cross section area of arc the
voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. This can done by allowing the arc pass
through the similar area compared to wide area.
4. Splitting of Arc: The resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into a
number arc in series. These may be split by introducing some conducting plates between
the contacts of circuit breaker.
The major disadvantages in this method is that is very high energy is dissipates in the arc
Therefore, it is the employed only in dc circuit breaker and low capacity is ac circuit
breaker.
 Low resistance or zero current method
•This method is applicable only in ac circuit breaker because ac has natura
zero of current.
•As the medium (air or oil) between contacts contain ionised particles so it
has small dielectric strength.
•Therefore ionized air can easily breakdown by the contact voltage and arc
will persist for another half cycle.
•The voltage that appear across the contacts at current zero during arcing
period is called is re-striking voltage.
Low resistance or zero current method
There are following two ways to achieve this
1. Causing the ionised particles in the space between contact to
recombine into neutral molecule.Ionised particles are responsible to
carry current and reduced dielectric strength of medium. When
ionised particles are recombine, the dielectric strength of medium
increases.
2. Sweeping the ionised particles away and replace them by
unionised particles.If the ionised particles of medium between
contacts are replaced with fresh particles, the dielectric strength of
the medium between contact is increased. Therefore, the air fails to
the strikes and flow of current is interrupted.
3.The deionisation of medium can be achieved by following
methods
– Lenthing of the gap: Dielectric strength of the medium can be
increased by increasing the length of gap between contacts.
Low resistance or zero current method
– High pressure: More the pressure of medium between contacts
higher the density of particles. The increased density of the particles
causes higher rate of de-ionisation and hence the dielectric strength
of medium between contacts increases.
– Cooling: Cooling causes ionised particles in the space between
contacts to recombine into neutral molecule. This increases the
dielectric strength of the medium.
– Bast effect: In this process the ionised particle between contacts
are swept away and replaced by fresh unionised particles. This
increases the dielectric strength of the medium and hence arc fails
to re-strike.
A picture of inductance, resistance, and capacitance on a
single phase. These parameters are uniformly distributed
along the line. and Protection
Trip Circuit
Fault & its equivalent circuit
 Switchgear and Protection

•One problem that is major in the power grid and not well understood
is called the Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV).
•When a short-circuit due to a fault in high voltage or medium
voltage system is switched-out by a circuit breaker, the voltage across
the breaker poles rapidly increases; as high as twice the operating
voltage.
•Although the interrupting chamber inside the breaker has enough
dielectric strength to withstand the elevated voltage, the rate at which
the recovery voltage rises (also known as RRRV) can overwhelm the
insulating medium. This leads to arc re-ignition at the poles and
eventually breaker failure.
Transient Recovery Voltage and Its Effect on a CB
 Switchgear and Protection
Let’s begin with following conditions
•A solid 3-phase fault close to the circuit breaker is assumed –
produces the most severe TRV.
•Resistance R is ignored for now.
•The line to ground capacitance close to breaker is considered. This
capacitance exists due to capacitance in bushings (specifically
condenser bushing), current transformers, adjacent power
transformer, etc.
 Switchgear and Protection
•At the instant a short-circuit occurs, before the breaker opens, the line
to ground capacitance is shorted-out. However as the breaker opens, it
draws an arc. As soon as it is extinguished, the source voltage starts to
charge the line to ground capacitor through the system inductance.
•The consequence? The voltage across the breaker poles is equal to the
system nominal voltage plus voltage created by the natural response of
a L-C circuit. There are two circuits at play here now. Let’s look at L-C
circuit specifically.
•In a lossless L-C circuit, the voltage oscillates indefinitely. The energy
stored in capacitor discharges and in-turn charges the inductor –
storing energy in its magnetic field. Once inductor is charged, it
discharges to charge the capacitor. This cycle looks like below.
Transient Recovery Voltage and Its Effect on a CB

L-C circuit natural response in a lossless circuit

When you superimpose damped L-C oscillations over

operating voltage at its peak, the resultant waveform
looks like below.
Transient Recovery Voltage and Its Effect on a CB
 Switchgear and Protection

Trip free feature of CB:

Suppose a CB has been instructed to close by manual instruction by

pushing of push button. The operating mechanism will start operating
for closing operation. Meanwhile a fault has been taken place and the
relay closes the trip circuit of the CB. Then the mechanism which
permits the CB to be tripped by the protective replay even if it is
under the process of closing. It means the CB is giving the priority to
the relay response or automatic response. It is known as the trip free
feature of CB
Switchgear and Protection
 Switchgear and Protection

What is arc?
Arc Flash is the result of a rapid release of energy due to an arcing fault between a
phase bus bar and another phase bus bar, neutral or a ground.
An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an ongoing
plasma discharge, resulting from a current through normally nonconductive media
such as air.

Why arc is created?

Sudden contact break down in high voltage line
 Switchgear and Protection
Mode of Arc extinction

1. High resistance interruption:

In this process the resistance of arc is increased by lengthening and cooling it
to such an extent that the system can’t maintain the arc and thus extinguishes.
This is used in the Air Break CB and D.C. CB.
Varc
rarc 
I arc
2. Low Resistance or zero point interruption:
In this process the arc gets extinguished at the natural current zero of the
alternating current wave and is prevented from restricting again by rapid
increasing the dielectric strength of the contact space. It is used in almost all
HV ac circuit breaker
Switchgear and Protection
 Switchgear and Protection
Technical particulars of a CB:

I. Type of medium for arc extinction

II. Rated voltage
III. Rated breaking current
IV. Other rated characteristic ( Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV), restricting
voltage, make current etc)
V. Type of construction
• Indoor metal clad
• Outdoor type
• Metal clad SF6 gas insulated type
VI. Type of operating mechanism
• Spring opened, spring closed mechanism
• Solenoid closed, spring opened mechanism
• Hydraulic mechanism
• Pneumatic mechanism
 Switchgear and Protection
Technical particulars of a CB:

VII. Total Break time

This is ( relay time + CB time)
= ( Instant of fault to closure of trip circuit) + (closure of trip circuit to final arc
extinction time)

Speed of CB and Relay

Before 1930: CB interrupting time: 15-30 cycles; relay interrupting time: 6-120
cycles
1930: CB interrupting time: 8 cycles
1935: CB interrupting time: 3 cycles
Present days relay time becomes as small as 1-3 cycles
 Switchgear and Protection
Transient in RL series circuit:

Selection of CB for the power system depends not only on the normal current
but also upon the maximum current it may have to carry momentarily and the
current it may have to interrupt at the voltage of the line in which it is placed. In
order to approach the problem for calculating the initial current when a
synchronous generator is short circuited.

Consider a RL circuit
Vm sin( ωt +α ) = Ri + Ldi/dt
Vm Vm  RL t
i (t )  sin(t     )  e sin(   )
Z Z

ac component dc component
where Z= √{R2 + (ωL)2}; θ = tan-1(ωL/R)
 Switchgear and Protection
Transient in RL series circuit:

Vm Vm  RL t
i (t )  sin(t     )  e sin(   )
Z Z

ac component dc component
i(t) will be maximum when dc i(t) will be minimum when dc
components will be maximum at α-θ = -π components will be minimum at α = θ
 Switchgear and Protection
In the case of short circuit at the terminal of a Synchronous generator.

I ” = |Eg |/X”d ; |I’| = |Eg |/X’d ; |I| = |Eg |/Xd;

 Switchgear and Protection
• The fault current attains the peak value at ½ cycle after the fault inception which
is the break value of the fault current under sub transient period
• Having the fault current been sensed by CT the operation of the protective relay
starts to. The CB contact start to apart after the operation of the protective relay
which generally takes little time. So the contacts of the CB generally starts to
separate when the initial current reduces to lower value in the transient period
• The rms value of the current at the instant of the contact separation is called the
breaking current of the CB and is expressed in kA
• in other words the breaking current is equal to the rms value of the fault current
under transient period.
• if a CB closes its contact on the existing fault the current would increase to a
peak value during the first half cycle from the instant of closing the CB on the
fault. The fault current is reached to the peak value at the ½ cycle from the
inception of the fault. This peak value of the fault current is called the making
current of the CB.
• The rated short circuit making current of a CB is the peak value of the first
current loop (i.e. ½ cycle) of the short circuit current which the CB is capable of
 Switchgear and Protection
• The expression of instantaneous current of a phase for a three phase solid fault at the terminal of an
unloaded generator:
t t t
1 1  Td " 1 1  Td ' 1 1  Ta
i (t )  2 E[( "  ' )e  ( '  )e  ] cos(t     )  2 E ( " ) e cos(   )
x d xd x d xd xd xd

= iac +idc

• The rms breaking current (symmetrical) = iac /√2 2

(iac / 2 ) 2  idc
• RMS breaking current (asymmetrical) =
• Rated short circuit breaking capacity ( Rupturing Capacity) of a CB

= √3 X kV (Rated Voltage) X kA (asymmetrical breaking current)

• Rated short circuit making current

= 1.8 X √2 X rated short circuit breaking current (symmetrical)

= 2.55 X rated short circuit breaking current (symmetrical)

 Switchgear and Protection
Mathematical Problem – 1

A 3-ϕ CB is rated 1250 A, 2000 MVA, 33kV, 4 sec. Find the symmetrical
breaking current, making current and short time rating

Solution:

• Rated symmetrical rms breaking current = 2000/ √3 X 33 = 35 kA

• Rated short circuit breaking making current

= 2.55 X rated short circuit breaking current (symmetrical)

= 2.55 X 35 = 89 kA
• Short time rating = 35 kA for 4 sec
 Switchgear and Protection
Current Interruption in ac CB:

• Suppose a 3-ϕ short circuit is applied on an unloaded alternator at the instant

when voltage of phase Y with respect to neutral is zero.
• In such case the short circuit current in phase B will have the maximum dc
component and the waveform of IB will be maximum unsymmetrical about
normal zero axis as shown
Switchgear and Protection
Switchgear and Protection
 Switchgear and Protection
• When the arc gets extinguished at fault current zero, a high frequency transient
voltage appears across the contact. This transient vanishes within a very short
time in the order of less than 0.001 sec
• This high frequency transient voltage tries to re-strike the arc. This is called
restriking voltage or transient recovery voltage (TRV)
• The power frequency system voltage appearing between the poles after arc
extinction is called Recovery Voltage
• The current that would flow in the circuit if the CB were replaced by solid
conductor is called Prospective Current.
• For successful arc interruption, the rate of building up of dielectric strength must
be higher than the rate of rise of TRV.
• The rate of rise of TRV depends on
o circuit parameters
o types of switching duty involved
• Rate of building up of dielectric strength depends on
o Effective design of interruption
o CB
 Switchgear and Protection
• Due to switching a capacitive current, a high voltage appearing across the contact
can cause reignition of the arc after its final extinction. If the space breaks down
within a period of ¼ of a cycle of the initial arc extinction, the phenomenon is
called reignition.
• If the break down after of ¼ of a cycle of the initial arc extinction, the
phenomenon is called restrike.
• TRV has a power frequency component and an oscillating transient component.
The oscillating transient component is developed due to the presence of
inductance and capacitive circuit. Power frequency component is due to system
volt 1
fn  Hz
• the frequency of oscillating transient component is 2  LC

When fn = frequency of TRV

L = equivalent inductance
c = equivalent capacitance
• In actual system the waveform of TRV has several component frequencies
ranging from a few Hz to several thousand Hz depending upon the circuit
parameter
 Switchgear and Protection
Effect of natural frequency on TRV:

• With the increase in the natural frequency of TRV the rate of rise of TRV increases
the rate of rise of TRV across the break pole causes the voltage stress on the contact
gap tending to continue the arc with higher frequency ( say f4n ), relatively less time is
available for the building up of dielectric strength of the contact gap. Hence higher
frequency is associated with greater stress.
• the breaking capacity of a CB is related with the rate of rise of TRV and therefore
with natural frequency of TRV. The breaking capability is reduced with the increase
in natural frequency
 Switchgear and Protection
Effect of Power factor on TRV:

• The voltage appearing across the CB pole at the instant of final current zero is
influenced by the power the factor of the current
• the instantaneous value of the voltage developed across the pole at the instant of
current zero ( when the arc is extinguished) depends on the phase on angle between
the voltage and current i.e. power factor.
• for unity p.f load, both current and voltage are in phase and both are zero at the
instant of current zero.
 Switchgear and Protection
Effect of Power factor on TRV:

• for zero p.f current, the peak value of the voltage emax is impressed across the pole
at the instant of current zero. Suck sudden application of voltage give rise to severe
transient and has a high rate of rise of TRV. Hence interrupting current of low p.f. is a
difficult switching duty
• Rate of rise and peak value of TRV depends upon several factors such as
 network configuration
 type of fault
 type of neutral earthing
(i.e solid grounding;
Grounding through resistor)
 Switchgear and Protection
Rate of Rise of TRV (R.R.R.V) :

• Rate of rise of restriking voltage or TRV is usually abbreviated by R.R.R.V and is

expressed in volt/μsec.
•Rate of rise of TRV and natural frequency of the TRV are closely associated.
R.R.R.V. depends on the system parameters.
• The CB should be capable of interrupting its rated breaking current under the
specific condition of TRV.

• The following characteristic of TRV are significant:

 Peak value of TRV
 Time to reach the peak, hence the rate of rise
 Frequency of TRV
 Initial rate of rise
 Switchgear and Protection
Rate of Rise of TRV (R.R.R.V) :
• if e is the restriking voltage, then R.R.R.V= de/dt volts/μsec
• Peak restriking voltage is defined as the maximum instantaneous value attained by
the restriking voltage (em )

• Em = peak recovery voltage

• R.R.R.V= em/tm volts/μsec; Amplitude factor = em/ Em
• Natural Frequency = 103 / 2tm kilocycle/sec; since f = 1/t = 1/ 2tm for any
sinusoidal wave form
 Switchgear and Protection
Derivation of Restriking Voltage:

Consider the following circuit, when current reaches zero at final arc extinction, a
voltage e is suddenly impressed across capacitor and there across the CB contact.
The current i which would flow to the fault is now injected in the capacitor and the
inductance. Thus
1 de
i  iL  ic 
L  edt  c
dt
........ (1)

di e d 2e
 c 2
........ ( 2)
dt L dt
 Switchgear and Protection
Derivation of Restriking Voltage:
• System voltage, e = Em cosωt
i = (Em / ωL) sinωt [since the current lags the voltage by 900 before
opening of CB]

di Em
  cos t .......(3)
dt L
di Em
at t  0;  ......(4)
dt L
Em e d 2e
Putting Equation (4) in equation (2) we get;  c
L L dt 2

Solving this equation for e, we get, e = Em [1-cos(t/√LC)]……..(5)

Em = Peak value of recovery voltage, phase to neutral; t= time in sec
L = inductance in henry; C= capacitance in farad; e= restriking voltage in volts
 Switchgear and Protection
Derivation of Restriking Voltage:
de d t
R.R.R.V   [ Em (1  cos )]
dt dt LC
Em t
 sin .........(6)
LC LC
R.R.R.V is maximum when sin t  1
LC
t  
 t  LC
LC 2 2

Putting equation(7) in equation (6)


LC
Em Em
( R.R.R.V ) max  sin 2 
LC LC LC
 Switchgear and Protection
Derivation of Restriking Voltage:

Further, peak restriking voltage occurs when e is mximum.

When de/dt = 0

de Em t
 sin  0  sin 
dt LC LC
t
   t   LC
LC

Peak restriking voltage is equal to ( from equation 5)

 LC
E peak  Em (1  cos )  2 Em
LC
 Switchgear and Protection
Summary:
 Switchgear and Protection
Mathematical Problem – 2: A 50 Hz 3ф alternator with grounded neutral has
inductance of 1.6 mH per phase and is connected to bus bar through a CB. The
capacitance to earth between the alternator and the CB is 0.003µF per phase. The
CB opens when r.m.s value of the current is 7500A. Determine:
a) Frequency of oscillation
b) The expression of T.R.V
c) Maximum R.R.R.V.
d) Time for maximum R.R.R.V.
e) Maximum voltage across the contents of the CB after the instant when arc is
formed.
f) Average rate of rise of voltage up to the first peak of the oscillation.
Switchgear and Protection
 Switchgear and Protection
Mathematical Problem – 3: A 50 Hz, 66kV, 3ф generator has an earthed neutral. The
inductance and capacitance per phase of the system are 7.5mH and 0.015µF
respectively. In a short circuit test the p.f of the fault current was 0.25 and the fault
current was symmetrical and the recovery voltage was observed as 90% of the full
line voltage. Calculate the rate of rise of restriking voltage (phase to neutral
value). Assume that fault is isolated from the ground.
Solution:
Switchgear and Protection
 Switchgear and Protection
Resistance Switching, Damping of T.R.V:
A deliberate connection of resistance in parallel with contact space (arc) is called resistance
switching. Resistance switching is use in CB having high post zero resistance of contact
space (Air blast CB).

It is used to
• Vanish the frequency of restriping voltage
• R.R.R.V is kept within the limit
• Divert the arc current
The value of resistance at which the frequency of T.R.V becomes zero is called the critical
damping resistance.
 Switchgear and Protection
Mathematical Problem – 4: In a system of 132 kV, the phase to ground
capacitance is 0.01µF. the inductance is 6H. Calculate the voltage appearing
across the pole of CB if magnetizing current of 10 A is interrupted. Calculate
the value of the resistance to be used across the contact gap to eliminate the
restriping voltage transient. Consider equal power distribution.
 Switchgear and Protection
Advantages of Air blast Circuit Breaker:
Ø Air which is free of cost can be used at high pressure.
Ø Reliable operation due to external source of extinguishing energy.
Ø Air is free from decomposition.
Ø Air is clear and non-inflammable.
Ø Fresh medium is used every time.
Ø At high pressure, small contact travel is enough.
Ø The same air serves the purpose of moving the contact and arc extinction.
Ø High speed operation.
Ø It is very easy to incorporate the rapid auto-reclosing facility.
Ø Less maintenance is required compared to Oil Circuit Breaker.
Ø Better stability.

Disadvantages of Air blast Circuit Breaker:

• Have to maintain a compressed air.
• Leakage from the compressed air system.
 Switchgear and Protection
Switching of a Capacitor bank:

During opening of a capacitor bank the reignition and restriking can occur in an interrupter. The current
drawn or supplied to the capacitor is generally of small order and the CB can interrupt such small
current invariably at first current zero. Due to 90° phase difference, the voltage across the capacitor is at
maximum value (ec) at this instant t1 and the capacitor remains charged at this voltage till t2. After
another cycle t2, the recovery voltage of approximate magnitude er (max) appears across the CB and the total
voltage across the contact gap is the sum of the two voltages.
 Switchgear and Protection

Thus the transient recovery voltage of the order of 2 Emax might appear across the CB
at the instant of t2, after the cycle from current zero. Therefore, a restrike may occur
and this can cause damage to the system.
 Switchgear and Protection
Auto Reclosure:
It is a special type of CB in which a mechanism is provided so that the contacts of
the CB will open when there is a fault on the system and will automatically try to
close after a short delay. If the fault is removed within this delay time, the contact
will be able to close by itself, otherwise it will be opened again. In this way the
CB will try to close its contact three times. If the fault still persists, the CB will
remain opened.

Dead time of Auto reclosure:

A minimum of 0.2s must be allowed to enable the contact space to become
deionized completely. Hence, a dead time of 0.3s can be taken as a safe reclosure time.
Switchgear and Protection
 Switchgear and Protection
Commissioning Test: This test is done after installation at site to verify the
operational readiness and proper functioning.
• Mechanical operation
• Simultaneous touching of contact
• Insulation resistance
• Operation of opening and closing
• Manual operation signal
• Automatic operation by energizing the relay

Short circuit Test: Stress on CB during short circuit test.

• Thermal stress, in turn stress on insulation.
• Electromagnetic stress.
Thank You
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