Computer Networks

(CSPC-207)
Dr. Kunwar Pal

Overview of Network Models

Networks

A network is a set of devices (often

referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.

A node can be a computer, printer, or any

other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
the network.
A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber,
or any medium which can transport a signal
carrying information. 2
OSI Model

COMMUNICATION
ARCHITECTURE
Strategy for connecting host computers and other
communicating equipment.
Defines necessary elements for data communication
between devices.
A communication architecture, therefore, defines a
standard for the communicating hosts.
A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the
communication architecture and passes it on to the
communication software.
Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for
example, we do not need to modify the entire host software
to include more communication devices.
OSI Model

LAYER ARCHITECTURE
Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
It is easy to debug network applications in a layered
architecture network.
The network management is easier due to the layered
architecture.
Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
The protocol defines the format of the data being
exchanged, and the control and timing for the handshake
between layers.
OSI Model

OPEN SYSTEMS
INTERCONNECTION (OSI)
MODEL
International standard organization (ISO) established a
committee in 1977 to develop an architecture for computer
communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the
result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was approved as an international standard for
communications architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two
systems which conform to the reference model and
associated standards.
OSI Model

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI model is now considered the primary
Architectural model for inter-computer communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes
its way from application programmes (such as
spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to
another application programme located on another
network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving
information between computers over a network medium
into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is
known as layering.
Seven layers of the OSI model

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OSI Model

OSI REFERENCE MODEL: 7

LAYERS
Interaction between layers in OSI model

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An exchange using OSI model

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OSI Model

OSI: A LAYERED NETWORK

MODEL
The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking
into layers reduces complexity.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol
specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —
Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end
to end through the network.
The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation
and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward
services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it
moves down the layers before network transit.
OSI Model

PHYSICAL LAYER
Provides physical interface for transmission of information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to

another on a physical communication medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and
procedural - aspects for physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes
are defined by physical layer specifications.
Physical layer

It is responsible for movement of individual bits from one

node to the next node.

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Data Link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one
hop (node) to the next.

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Hop-to-hop delivery

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OSI Model

DATA LINK LAYER

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication
over the physical layer interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the

received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and
retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host.

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Source-to-destination delivery

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OSI Model

Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.

Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from
the source to the destination
Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be
identified.
Handles congestion in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks
(Internetworking).
The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into
smaller packets to accommodate different media.
Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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OSI Model

Transport Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for
the exchange of data between two processes in different
computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.

Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
Provides for the connection management.
Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.
Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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OSI Model

Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue
between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and
end conversations (called sessions) between applications.
This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on
an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by
this layer.
Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be
full duplex or half duplex.
Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such
that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data
can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.
Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to
be exchanged between the two communicating entities.
Also handles data compression and data encryption
(cryptography).
Application layer

It is responsible for providing services to the user.

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OSI Model

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with application programs and is
the highest level of OSI model.
Application layer contains management functions to support
distributed applications.
Examples of application layer are applications such as file
transfer, electronic mail, remote login etc.
Summary of layers

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

It was developed prior to the OSI model and consists only five
layers.

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match

those in the OSI model.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four

layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.

However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that

the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data
link, network, transport, and application.
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TCP/IP and OSI model

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Physical and Data Link Layers

At this layer, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It

supports all the standard protocols.

A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a LAN or WAN.

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Network Layer

Network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source

computer and destination computer.
NL is responsible for host-to-host connection and also responsible to
control routers for choosing best routing strategy.
NL in the Internet includes a main protocol called Internet Protocol (IP)
which defines format of packet (called datagram).
IP also perform the routing by passing each datagram through routers
unless it reaches the destination.

NL also includes unicast and multi-cast routing protocols

• A routing protocol does not take part in routing (That is the
responsibility if IP)
• It simply creates forwarding tables for routers to help them in
routing

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IP

It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol.

• No flow control
• No error control
• No congestion control

If any of these services are required by Application, it should

rely on transport layer protocol

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Auxiliary Protocols which help IP at NL

At Network layer, Some Auxiliary protocols help IP in its

work:
• ICMP
• IGMP
• RARP
• ARP.

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ICMP, IGMP and RARP

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• A mechanism used by host and gateways to send notification of
datagram problems back to the sender.
• It sends query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

• Used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a
group of recipients
• It helps IP in multitasking

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

• Protocol allows a host to discover its internet address when it
knows its physical address.
• It is used when computer is connected to a network for first time.

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ARP

Used to associate the logical address with physical address

(link-layer address to a host or a router when network layers
address is given).

Each device on the network is identified by physical or station

address, usually imprinted on the network interface card
(NIC).

ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its
internet address is known.

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Transport Layer

Logical connection at Transport Layer is end-to-end

It performs the following service:

• To get a message from application program running on
source host
• Deliver it to corresponding application program at
destination host

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Transport Layer

Responsible for delivery of message from a process to another

process
• TCP (Transmission control Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

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TCP

TCP is a connection oriented protocol

It first establishes a connection is established between both the ends
(source and destination host) before data transmission.
At the sending end TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called
segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with acknowledgment no. for the segments received.
At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and
reorder the transmission based on sequence no.
TCP provides:
• flow control
• error control
• congestion control

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UDP

UDP is a connection-less protocol

• Transmits user datagram without first creating a logical
connection
• Each datagram from a user is an independent entity
Does not provide:
• flow control
• error control
• congestion control
Its is a simple protocol which is attractive to an application
program which needs to send short messages and cannot
afford the retransmission of packets involved in TCP if a
packets is corrupted and lost.

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SCTP

Stream Control Transmission Protocol

• provides support for newer applications such as voice
over the internet.
• It combines the best features of UDP & TCP protocol.

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Application Layer
An application is a program running on a computer (which is also termed as a
process)
Logical connection is end-to-end
• Two applications exchange messages between each other via a virtual
bridge between the two.
• Physically, communication is performed via all the layers.
To communicate, one process sends a request message to other process and gets a
reply message
A number of protocols are predefined but a user can also do the same provided they
provide it at both ends.
Some of the protocols are:
• HTTP (Hyper Text Markup Language)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• TELNET (TErminaLNETwork)
• SSH (Secure SHell)
• SNMP (Simple Network Managemnet Protocol)
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