AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.1 Cells and simple cell transport
• All living things are made up of cells. The structures of different types of cells
are related to their functions. To get into or out of cells, dissolved substances
have to cross the cell membranes.
• B2.1.1 Cells and cell structure
• B2.1.2 Dissolved substances
No Higher Tier content
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
All living things are made up of cells. The structures of different
B2.1.1 Cells and cell structure types of cells are related to their functions
Plant or
Part Function
animal
Contains genetic material,
Nucleus which controls the Both
activities of the cell
Most chemical processes
Cytoplasm take place here, Both
controlled by enzymes
Controls the movement
Cell Yeast: Yeast is a single-celled organism.
membrane of substances into and Both
out of the cell The cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a
Most energy is released membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
Mitochondria
by respiration here Both
Ribosomes
Protein synthesis happens Both
here
Plant
Cell wall Strengthens the cell ONLY
Bacteria: Single-celled organism.
Contain chlorophyll, Plant
Chloroplasts absorbs light energy for ONLY A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm and
photosynthesis a membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
Permanent Filled with cell sap to help Plant The genes are not in a distinct nucleus.
vacuole keep the cell turgid ONLY
B2.1.1 Cells and cell structure - Specialised cells Cells are specialised for a particular function.
Structure helps them to carry this function out.
Cell Diagram Function Adaptations
Leaf Absorbs light for
Lots of chloroplasts.
cell photosynthesis.
Root Absorbs water and
Large finger like shapes to increase
hair mineral ions from the
surface area.
cell soil.
Head contains an enzyme to help
Sperm
Fertilises an egg penetrate egg, lots of mitochondria so
cell
egg can swim to sperm.
Red Thin outer membrane so oxygen
Carries oxygen to the
blood diffuses easily, no nucleus so more
cells.
cell room for oxygen.
Goblet (mucus) and cilia cells are found in the lining of
the gut and the tubes into the lungs. They are
specialised to release and move mucus. Helps food
slide down easily in the gut and helps trap dirt and
bacteria before they enter the lungs. The cilia cells
help move the mucus especially in the lungs. Cilia cells
have lots of mitochondria.
B2.1.2 Dissolved substances Diffusion is the spreading of the particles of a gas or liquid,
resulting in a movement of particles from a region where
Concentration gradient they are of a higher concentration to an area of lower
A difference in concentration.
concentration between two
areas next to each other. Diffusion can occur in:
Particles will move down Air - smells from perfume etc.
the concentration gradient Liquids – tea from a tea bag, dye
High to Low. in water etc.
The larger the difference in Through membranes – small intestines, blood cells etc.
concentration the faster
the rate of diffusion. Location Particles move From To
Small intestine
Digested food Blood in
Small
products e.g. capillary of
intestine
glucose villus
Lungs
Blood
Alveolar air circulating
Oxygen
space around the
lungs
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.2 Tissues, organs and organ systems
The cells of multicellular organisms may differentiate and become adapted for
specific functions. Tissues are aggregations of similar cells; organs are
aggregations of tissues performing specific physiological functions. Organs are
organised into organ systems, which work together to form organisms.
• B2.2.1 Animal organs
• B2.2.2 Plant organs
No Higher Tier content
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.2.1 Animal organs Tissues in the stomach The stomach is an organ
that contains:
Organisation of a muscular tissue, to churn
multicellular organism the contents
cells tissues organs glandular tissue, to
organ systems produce digestive juices
epithelial tissue, to cover
A TISSUE is a group of the outside and the inside
specialised cells working of the stomach.
together to carry out a The digestive system
particular function. An organ system which humans and other mammals have so
they can exchange substances with the environment.
Tissue Function
Part(s) Function
Contracts, Pancreas/ Produce
Muscular bringing about
tissue salivary digestive juices
movement glands
Produces Stomach Digests food
Glandular substances such Liver Produces bile
tissue as enzymes and
hormones Small Digest and
intestine absorb soluble
food
Covers some
Epithelial parts of the
tissue Large Absorbs water/
body intestine produces faeces
B2.2.2 Plant organs Tissue Definition
Epidermal Covers the plant, contains stomata.
Plants organs Mesophyl Where photosynthesis takes place. Contains palisade
Stem support for the leaves cells and spongy layer.
and flowers. Water and Xylem Carries water and mineral ions from roots.
glucose transported too. Phloem Carries glucose from the mesophyll to the rest of the
Leaves make the food for plant.
the plant where Stomata Pores on the underside of the leaf that allow gases
photosynthesis happens. to diffuse in and out.
Roots anchor the plant in
the soil, take up water and
mineral ions.
Flowers are reproductive
organs to attract insects.
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.3 Photosynthesis
Green plants and algae use light energy to make their own food. They obtain the
raw materials they need to make this food from the air and the soil. The
conditions plants are grown in can be changed to promote growth.
• B2.3.1 Photosynthesis
No Higher Tier content
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.3.1 Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Photo = light, Synthesis = making of (glucose)
Photosynthesis = making glucose using light
Factors that can limit the rate of photosynthesis
• Light intensity – not enough light no photosynthesis
• CO2 concentration - not enough light no photosynthesis
• Water availability – plants wilt, not enough no
Plants convert glucose into
starch and store it. photosynthesis
Cover part of a leaf in black • Temperature – too low temp enzymes don’t work well
paper then test it for starch
using iodine.
Greenhouses
Plant cells use some of the Farmers can use greenhouses to increase plant growth.
glucose produced during Artificial light - allows photosynthesis to continue beyond
photosynthesis for respiration. daylight hours.
Also use the glucose to make: Heating - allows photosynthesis to continue at an
oil for storage, cellulose for cell increased rate heater can also give off extra carbon
walls, proteins (also need dioxide released into the greenhouse this allows
nitrates for this from the soil). photosynthesis to continue at an increased rate.
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.4 Organisms and their environment
Living organisms form communities, and we need to understand the relationships
within and between these communities. These relationships are affected by
external influences.
• B2.4.1 Distribution of organisms
No Higher Tier content
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.4.1 Distribution of organisms The distribution of living organisms in a particular habitat
may be affected by physical factors (abiotic) e.g.
Quadrats: These are square Temperature, amount of light, availability of water,
frames, used to mark off specific availability of nutrients, availability of oxygen and carbon
areas of ground 0.5m X 0.5m dioxide. They can also be affected by living factors
(biotic) availability of prey, disease, predators.
Line Transect:Measure out an area, good for
investigating changing habitats, place quadrat at regular
intervals, record organisms, repeat on different line to
collect average
Quadrats:
Sample an area
Random method generate numbers using
a calculator. Take several samples
Count number of organisms in each
quadrat or count the % cover.
Calculate an average from the samples
Multiply the average by the area of the
field Reproducible Valid
Improve results by taking more samples Another group are able Data collection that is
to carry out the suitable to answer the
investigation and investigation
collect similar results hypothesis
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.5 Proteins – their functions and uses
Proteins have many functions, both inside and outside the cells of living
organisms. Proteins, as enzymes, are now used widely in the home and in
industry.
• B2.5.1 Proteins
• B2.5.2 Enzymes
No Higher Tier content
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.5.1 Proteins - Enzymes Enzymes made of proteins they are biological catalysts -
substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions
Protein molecules are made up without being used up.
of long chains of amino acids.
These long chains are folded to
produce a specific shape that
enables other molecules to fit
into the protein.
Proteins: structural components
of tissues e.g. muscles,
hormones, antibodies,
enzymes.
To begin with heat will help increase collisions
Uses of enzymes: Biological between the enzymes and substrates BUT too hot
detergents: Contain protease and and it will denature (remember denature NOT die)
lipase, break down protein and fats
in stains. Baby food: Protease, Pre
digest proteins. Diet products:
DENATURED
isomerase is used to convert glucose
syrup into fructose syrup, which is
much sweeter, can be used in
smaller quantities in slimming foods
Enzymes are also easily affected by pH changes. Need specific conditions to keep them
working at their best. OPTIMUM CONDITIONS!
B2.5.2 Enzymes –Digestive enzymes Enzymes for respiration, photosynthesis and protein
synthesis work inside cells. Other enzymes produced
Digestion and absorption occurs
by specialised cells and released from them e.g.
in the gut this goes from the digestive enzymes. Catalyse means to speed up.
mouth to the anus.
Enzyme Reaction Where produced
catalysed
Amylase Starch → sugars Salivary glands,
pancreas, small
intestine
Protease Proteins → amino Stomach, pancreas,
acids small intestine
Lipase Lipids → fatty Pancreas, small
acids + glycerol intestine
Digestion and pH:
The stomach releases acid. The enzymes
made in the stomach work best in acidic
conditions. The enzymes made in the pancreas
and small intestine work best in alkaline
conditions. The liver produces bile which is
released into the small intestine. Bile neutralises
the acid that was added to the food in the
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.6 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Respiration in cells can take place aerobically or anaerobically. The energy
released is used in a variety of ways. The human body needs to react to the
increased demand for energy during exercise.
• B2.6.1 Aerobic respiration
• B2.6.2 Anaerobic respiration
Higher tier content: HT - As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete, much less
energy is released than during aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration results in
an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon
dioxide and water.
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.6.1 Aerobic respiration RESPIRATION RELEASES ENERGY IT DOES NOT PRODUCE ENERGY.
Aerobic Respiration The process of releasing energy from food in cells. Aerobic respiration -
uses oxygen. All chemical reactions inside cells are controlled by enzymes.
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
Glucose reacts with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products. To
release energy. This takes place continuously in animals and plants.
Released energy is used for: Mitochondria: Tiny organelles found in most
To build up larger molecules using smaller plant and animal cells. Where the respiration
ones. In animals, to enable muscles to reactions happen. More active cells have
contract. In mammals and birds, to more
maintain a steady body temperature in mitochondria
colder surroundings. In plants, to build up e.g. muscle cells,
sugars, nitrates and other nutrients into sperm cells.
amino acids which are then built up into
proteins.
During exercise changes take place: the heart rate and breathing increases. Blood flow
increases so more glucose and O2 to cells. Muscles store glucose as glycogen – the glycogen
gets converted back to glucose during exercise.
B2.6.2 Anaerobic respiration RESPIRATION RELEASES ENERGY IT DOES NOT PRODUCE ENERGY.
During exercise, too little oxygen is reaching the muscles they use anaerobic respiration to
RELEASE energy. It is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid.
Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen)
glucose → lactic acid (+ small amount of energy)
Lactic Acid Higher Tier OXYGEN dept:
If muscles have long Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be
periods of exercise they repaid in order to change lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.
get fatigued- they stop The extra oxygen needed is called the oxygen debt.
contracting properly. One -The heart continues to
cause is the build-up of pump faster.
lactic acid in the muscles. -The breathing rate
Lactic acid is poisonous. remains high.
We can only tolerate -This delivers the extra
small amounts in our oxygen to the muscles.
body. Blood flowing -This pays back the
through the muscles oxygen debt.
removes the lactic acid.
In yeast anaerobic respiration produces ethanol and carbon dioxide (which is why
we used it to make beer and bread) we call this fermentation.
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.7 Cell division and inheritance
Characteristics are passed on from one generation to the next in both plants and
animals. Simple genetic diagrams can be used to show this. There are ethical
considerations in treating genetic disorders.
Higher Tier - construct genetic diagrams of monohybrid crosses and predict the
outcomes of monohybrid crosses and be able to use the terms homozygous,
heterozygous, phenotype and genotype. Foundation Tier - should be able to
interpret genetic diagrams of monohybrid inheritance and sex inheritance.
• B2.7.1 Cell division
Higher Tier - When a cell divides to form gametes:
■ copies of the genetic information are made
■ then the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each with a single set of
chromosomes.
• B2.7.2 Genetic variation
Higher Tier - Each gene codes for a particular combination of amino acids which
makes a specific protein.
• B2.7.3 Genetic disorders
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.7.1 Cell division Genetic information is in the nucleus of cells
Inside the nucleus are chromosomes made up of
DNA –BODY CELLS have two sets of chromosomes,
SEX CELLS (gametes) have one set of chromosomes
in humans body cells 46 chromosomes (23 pairs),
sex cells (sperm/egg) 23 single chromosomes.
BODY CELLS DIVIDE BY MITOSIS (makes my toes)
MITOSIS cell division for growth and SEX CELLS DIVIDE BY MEIOSIS
repair of cells (produces clones).
1. Parent cell Higher Tier MEIOSIS cell division to produce sex cells
1 for reproduction.
2. Chromosomes
make identical Creates 4 daughter cells, genetically
2
copies of unique , makes gametes (sperm,
themselves egg), 23 chromosomes only
3 3. Line up along
the centre
4. They move
4 apart
5. Two daughter
cells start to form.
5 6. Two new
daughter cells
with identical Fertilisation: where gametes
chromosomes to join. New cell divides by
6 mitosis to form baby.
the parent cell.
B2.7.1 Cell division – STEM cells STEM CELLS: Cells that can become anything, they are
undifferentiated
Embryonic stem cells can be made into
any type of cell (curing all sorts of disease)
but come from aborted embryos (which
can be a problem) We also don't know the
long term effect of their use yet.
Stem cells can be used in new treatments
for Parkinson's disease and paralysis. They
can be harvested from inside embryos, Adult bone marrow stem cells can also be used
umbilical cords and bone marrow. but can’t be made into as many different things
but you can give permission to have them taken
the operation can be painful!
Plant Cells: Most plant cells stay unspecialised.
They can differentiate all through their lives.
Unspecialised cells are made at the stems and
roots, where mitosis takes place almost
constantly. This makes it very easy to clone plants.
There are social and ethical issues
concerning the use of human embryonic
stem cells.
B2.7.2 Genetic variation Sexual reproduction leads to variation: Meiosis ensures that
all gametes contain the same genes, but have a different
Alleles -different forms of the selection of alleles. Also, it is random which sperm fertilises
same gene represented by two which egg.
letters. For example, eye colour
All individuals (except for
identical twins) produced
sexually are genetically
different DNA fingerprinting
can identify individuals.
Recessive- characteristic only
expressed when two of the Determining sex (gender): Human
same alleles are present e.g. body cells have 23 pairs of
bb. Dominant- characteristic chromosomes in the nucleus. One of
expressed when one or both these pairs controls the inheritance
alleles are present e.g. BB or Bb of gender: XX=female XY=male
HIGHER TIER:
HIGHER TIER: You must be able to draw for
Homozygous- two of the same allele e.g. bb or BB
monohybrid crosses, these and identify
Heterozygous- two different alleles e.g. Bb
genotype and phenotype of offspring. You Genotype- the genes present e.g. Bb or bb or BB
must work out % of offspring with each Phenotype- the genes that are expressed in the
characteristic. T – tall t – short physical characteristics. e.g., brown eyes, blue eye,
What % of the offspring blond hair, brown hair. Each gene codes for a
will be short? particular combination of amino acids which makes
a specific protein.
B2.7.3 Genetic disorders Some genetic disorders are inherited e.g. polydactyly, cystic fibrosis.
Embryos can be screened for the different types of disorders.
Cystic fibrosis (a disorder of Polydactyly: Extra fingers or toes - caused by a dominant
cell membranes) inherited allele can be passed on by only one parent who has the
from both parents. The disorder.
parents can be carriers of CF
but not have CF. Caused by a
recessive allele so can passed
on by parents who don’t have
it. Causes thick, sticky mucus
to accumulate in the lungs
and the digestive system. This
causes: Lung infections,
problems with breathing, A genetic
problems with digestion and pedigree or
absorption. Family trees
can also be
used to trace
how a disease
is inherited.
On the right is
an example for
cystic fibrosis.
B2.7.2 Genetic variation – Gregor Mendel Called the father of modern genetics. No one
took his ideas seriously until after his death.
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) studied the
inheritance of different characteristics in
pea plants.
• Found that when he bred red-flowered
plants with white-flowered plants, all
the offspring had red flowers.
• If he bred these plants with each other,
most had red flowers, but some had
white. FIRST CROSS:
• This was because the allele for red All the offspring have red flowers, even though they
carry the recessive allele for white flowers
flowers is dominant, and the allele for
white flowers is recessive.
SECOND CROSS:
Three-quarters of the offspring have red flowers
and a quarter have white flowers
AQA Knowledge PowerPoint
Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.8 Speciation
Changes in the environment of plants and animals may cause them to die out. The
fossil record shows that new organisms arise, flourish, and after a time become
extinct. The record also shows changes that lead to the formation of new species.
• B2.8.1 Old and new species
Higher Tier - genetic variation – each population has a wide range of
alleles that control their characteristics
■ natural selection – in each population, the alleles that control the
characteristics which help the organism to survive are selected
■ speciation – the populations become so different that successful
interbreeding is no longer possible.
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for certification June 2014 onwards
B2.8.1 Old and new species - FOSSILS – SHOW EVIDENCE OF EARLY LIFE FORMS.
OLD Can be formed by
Mineralisation of the hard parts (shells, bones, teeth etc)
Fossils can be used to gather Some soft parts do not decay/rot, because they are buried.
evidence for evolution. This Traces of the animals (footprints, burrows, faeces, etc)
is called a fossil record.
Extinction
Permanent loss of all members
of a species.
Caused by a change:
New predators
New diseases
Loss of habitat
More successful competitor
Can’t find evidence of all earlier life forms: Many were soft-bodied, so left few traces behind
as many destroyed by geological activity.
B2.8.1 Old and new species - New species arise as because of: Isolation – two populations of
NEW a species become separated e.g geographically.
Species: A group of similar organisms that can breed to Higher Tier: Speciation
produce fertile offspring Takes place when an isolated
population becomes so different
Higher Tier:
from the original population that a
Genetic variation – each population has a wide range of
new species is produced.
alleles that control their characteristics.
Natural Selection
Variation –populations of organisms have variations.
Over-production –produce more young than will survive
to adulthood.
Struggle for existence – competition for survival
between the organisms
Survival – those with advantageous characteristics are
more likely to survive Advantageous characteristics
inherited – better adapted organisms are more likely to
Reproduce successfully passing on the advantageous
characteristics to their offspring in their genes.
Gradual change – over a period of time the more
individuals with the advantageous characteristics in the
population.
Endemic: A species that has evolved to live in only one place in
the world.
