Chapter one :

Introduction to Public Health

Microbiology
 Learning Objectives
• After the end this chapter , students should be
able to :
• Define public health microbiology

• Explain the core functions of public health

microbiology

• Describe the history of microbiology in foods

 Objective cont’d…
• Describe the taxonomy, roles and significance of
microorganisms in food , water, milk and beverages

• Identify sources of contamination and types of

microorganisms in foods and water
1.0. Introduction to Public health Microbiology
1.1. What is public health microbiology ?
Public health microbiology is a subject that deals about
microorganisms, their byproducts , toxins , that may cause :

» Human diseases
» Intoxication
» Spoilage of foods/ beverages
» Distraction of inanimate objects
 Introduction to Public Health
Microbiology .cont…
This subject deals with :-
1. Microorganisms in food , water and beverages
2. Inspection and sampling of foods, water and
beverages
3. Microbiological examination of foods, water and
beverages
4. Methods for microbiological analysis of food water
and beverages
 1.2. Public health microbiology laboratory core
functions
1. Disease prevention, control, and surveillance;

2. Integrated data management;

3. Reference and specialized testing;

4. Environmental health and protection;

5. Food safety;
 Core functions cont’d…
6. Laboratory improvement and regulation;

7. Policy development;

8. Emergency response;

9. Public health-related research;

10. Training and education; and

11. Partnership and communication

 1.2.1.Disease prevention, control, and
surveillance

• Provide accurate and precise analytical results

• Rapidly recognizing and preventing the spread of

communicable diseases

• Serve as a center of expertise for the detection and

identification of biologic agents.
1.2.1. Disease prevention, control, and
surveillance cont…

• Provide specialized tests for low-incidence,

high-risk diseases

• Detect epidemiologic shifts; and detect newly

emerging Pathogens

• Provide population surveillance, or screening

of diseases for public health important
 1.2.2.Reference and Specialized Testing
• Serve as the state's primary reference
microbiology laboratory to :-

• Test for unusual pathogens ;such as MDR-TB

• Confirm atypical (un usual)laboratory test results;

• Verify results of other laboratory tests;

Specialized Testing cont’d…

• Provide toxicology testing,

• Provide oversight for quality assurance;

• Test epidemiologically significant specimens

• Provide reference diagnostic testing to private sector

laboratories
1.2.3.Environmental Health and
Protection
• Conduct scientific analyses of environmental samples

• Analyze environmental and biological specimens and detect,

identify, and quantify toxic contaminants

• Ensure laboratory services that support assurance of clean air

and water in the state,

• Provide environmental chemistry testing including organic

and inorganic compounds
 Environmental Health and Protection
• Provide or ensure analysis of environmental
samples

• Measure toxicants to determine conclusively

the extent of exposure to environmental
hazards.

• Provide industrial hygiene /occupational

health testing
 1.2.4.Food Safety

 Test specimens from persons, food, water and

beverages implicated in food borne illness outbreaks
to identify causes and sources.

 Analyze food specimens to detect, identify, and

quantify toxic contaminants

 Ensure, radiation-control studies to monitor

radioactive contamination of water, milk, shellfish,
and other foods
1.2.5.Laboratory Improvement and
Regulation
 Coordinate and promote quality assurance programs for
private clinical and environmental laboratories
 Serve as the standard of excellence for local and private
laboratory performance
 Exercise leadership and authority as the agency responsible
for laboratory regulation and training in the clinical and
environmental areas.

 Provide technical support of federal, state, county, and local

regulations and laws.
 1.2.6.Policy Development
• Provide scientific and managerial leadership in
developing state and federal public health
policy

• Participate in developing standards for all

health-related laboratories
 1.2.7.Emergency Response

• Provide laboratory support as part of state

and national disaster preparedness plans for
environmental or health emergencies,
• Ensuring the capacity to quickly and
accurately handle a substantial volume of
tests during an emergency situation; and
providing a rapid response system for
hazardous contaminants in waste
 1.2.8.Public Health-Related Research

• Evaluate and implement new technologies

and analytical methodologies to ensure that
laboratories provide:

• State-of-the-art,
• Cost-effective, and
• Timely analytical and diagnostic services
 1.2.9. Training and Education

 Provide, or facilitate, training courses and

workshops for laboratory staff to strengthen
(for providing) quality services

Provide short- and long-term training

opportunities

Provide continuing education in management

and leadership development for those in
administrative positions.
2.0. HISTORY OF MICROROGANISMS IN FOODS

• Two major era in food science at the pre

scientific era
1. Food gathering period
– The period from human origin, 1milion years - 8000
yrs ago were reported
– Human were considered as Carnivores
– Food were cooked for the first time
– While plant food recognized later.
History of Microorganism in Foods
cont…
2. Food processing period

• 8000-10000 years ago and now

• Food spoilage and poisoning is recognized

• Food preservation techniques advanced

• Standards of food quality is established

 Table 1.1.Major events noted for food microbiology
Major events Year Place
Spoilage of prepared food dated 6000 B.C

First evidence of beer manufactory as far back as 7000 B.C ancient Babylonian

The first to bread live Stock and diary men, and - Sumerians
among the first to make butter.

Usage of salt from Dead Sea for the - Jews

preservation of food.

Preparation of Wines. 3500 B.C Assyrians

Preparation and consumption of Fermented as far back as 1500 B.C ancient Babylonians and ancient
sausage. Chinese

practice of smoking to preserve food around 1000 B.C. -

Few advances were apparently made towards between the time of the birth of
understanding of food poisoning and food Christ and A.D. 1100.
spoilage

Ergot poisoning cause 40,000 deaths 943 A.D France

3.0. Taxonomy, roles and significance of microorganism
in foods and beverages

• Different types of microorganisms could be involved in food

microbiology. Understanding the taxonomy of the microbes is
paramount for the subject matter.

• Many of the new taxa have been created as a result of the

employment of molecular genetic methods alone or in
combination with the traditional methods. The following
methods are included:

• DNA homology and moles % G + C content of DNA.

• 23 s, 16s and 5s rRNA sequence similarities
• Oligonucleotide cataloging
 Taxonomy, roles and significance cont…

• Numerical taxonomic analysis of total soluble proteins /

battery of morphological and biochemical
characteristics
• Cell wall analysis
• Serologic markers
• Fatty acid analysis ( eg. HPLC analysis of Mycobcateria)
 Bacterial taxonomy con’td…
3.1. The most important genera known to occur in foods are
listed below in alphabetical order.
3.1.1. Bacterial group
• Acitinobacter Enterobacter Pediococcus
• Aeromonas Erwinia Proteus
• Alcaligenes Escherchia Pseudomonas
• Alteromonas Flavobacterium Psychrobacter
• Bacillus Hafnia Salmonella
• Brochothrix Lactococcus Serratia
• Campylobactyer Lactobacilus Shewanella
• Carnobacterium Leuconostoc Shigella
• Citrobacter Listeria Staphylocoous
• Closteridum Microcoous Vagocoous
• Cornibacterium Moraxella Vibrio
 Enterocoous
 Pantoea Yersinia
 Bacterial taxonomy con’td…
3.1.2.Molds group
Alternaria Cladosporium Zeromyces
Mucor
Aspergillus Colletotrichum Penicillium
Aureobasidium Fusarium Rhizopus
Botrytis Geotrichum Trichothecium
ByssochlmysMonilia Wallemia

3.1.3.Yeasts group
Brettanomyces Issatchenkia Schizosaccharomyces
Candida Kluyveromyces Torulaspora
Crptococcus Picha Trichosporon
Debaryomyces Rhodotorula Zygosaccharomyces
Hanseniaspora Saccharomyces

3.1.4.Protozoa

Cryptosporidum parvum Girdia lambilia

Entamoeba histolytica
4.0. Incidence and types of
Microorganisms in foods
• Basic description of microorganisms in foods
• Bacteria are prokaryotic unicellular microorganisms
• Their cells have a relatively rigid cell wall that maintain
their characteristics shape
• Morphological features of interest are size, shape,
grouping of the cell and possession of features such as
endospores , flagella or capsule
• Can also be described by their staining reactions
 Incidence and types cont…
Bacteria that involve in food microbiology and
causes public health problems includes:
• Cocci
– A spherical (oval)cell

– Reproduce by binary fission

– On completion, the division of the cells may remain

attached and form either a cluster as in the case of
Micrococcus and staphylococcus or chains as in
Streptococcus
 Incidence and types cont…
• Micrococci ( cocci that are found in single)

• Non pathogenic but are important in food spoilage

• Are resistant to heat ( some survive 74oc for 60 minute )
• Grow at relatively at low water activity
• Tolerate high concentration of sodium chloride
• Are also resistant to freezing and drying
 Incidence and types cont…

• Staphylococci ( cocci that form cluster)

• Includes some pathogenic strains

• During growth in foods , the often produce exo toxins

which provoke food poisoning .

• The exotoxins are heat stable and are not destroyed by

ordinary cooking
Incidence and types cont…

• Grow at relatively low water activity and in the

presence of high concentration of sodium chloride

• Both Micrococcus and Staphylococci are gram positive

cocci arranged in clusters

• Unlike the Staphylococci , the Microcci utilize dextrose

oxidatively and are able to grow on ammonium
phosphate water
 Incidence and types cont…

• Streptococci ( cocci in short and long chains )

• Are gram positive cocci arranged in short or

long chains

• Are lactic acid producers and tolerate low Ph

values

• Grow only in highly enriched media

Incidence and types cont…
• Are resistant to heat, freezing and drying

• May survive pasteurization of foods

• The enterococcus group consists mainly Streptococcus

fecalis and S.faecium

• Entrococci serve as indicator organism in some

laboratory
 Incidence and types cont…
• Leuconostoc
• Are micro aerophilic cocci
• Produce lactic acid as well as gas
• Tolerate high concentration of sugar and sodium
chloride
• Are important in food spoilage
• Pediococci
• Are cocci that occur singly and in pairs and are
important agents in the spoilage of beers
 Incidence and types cont…
• Rods
– They are cylindrical or rod like

– They may occur in chains and some are motile

– basic features in the classification

– Gram staining reaction
– production of spores
 Incidence and types cont…
• Non spore forming gram positive rods
• Lactobacilli
– Are lactic acid producers
– Tolerate low PH values
– Are micro aerophilic and the often form the
predominant part of the micro flora in vacuum
packed products
– Some strains are heat resistant and they may
survive pasteurization of food
 Incidence and types cont…

• Spore forming gram positive rods

• Are divided in to two genera
» Bacillus
» Clostridium
– Bacillus species are aerobes/facultative anaerobes
and catalase positives
– Clostridium species are obligate an aerobe and
catalse negative
– All species of both genera are able to produce spores
 Incidence and types cont…
• Spore forming gram positive rods
– Spores can resist may form of adverse conditions
and can survive for more than 100 years
– Survive massive dose of irradiation and are extremly
resistant to chemicals and heat
– Spores are killed at 121 o c with in 20 minutes
– Spore forming bacteria include several pathogens of
which the most important in food microbiology are
Clostridium botulinum , C.perfiringes and Bacillus
cereus
 Incidence and types cont…
• Non spore forming gram negative rods
• Non spore forming gram negative rods of importance in
food microbiology are aerophilic and catalase positive
• In general they are much more sensitive to heat ,
dehydration , freezing , low PH & low water activity
than the cocci and the gram positive rods
• Some of the gram negative rods are psychrophilic and
are responsible for the spoilage of food kept low
temperature
 Incidence and types cont…

• Non spore forming gram negative rods

• Among the most important spoilage agents are
members of the genera
Pseudomonas,Achromobacter,Flavobacter and Proteus
• The gram negative rod also includes pathogens such
as , salmonela shigella , vibrio etc.
• Several of them are inhabitants of the intestinal tract of
man and animals and these are used widely as fecal
indicators
• Most commonly used in this way are the coliforms
 Incidence and types cont…

• Fungi
– Yeasts

– May be desirable( in food industry as leavening of

bread , production of alcohol, glycerol etc.) or
undesirable inputs

– Several types of yeasts are food spoilers but few are

known to be pathogenic to man
 Incidence and types cont…
• Fungi

– Moulds

– Play important role in foods

– Some are desirable because they produce products
that enhance the flavor of foods
– Some other molds are capable of producing
mycotoxins which poses public health hazards
– Most molds are considered to be mesophilic, their
optimal temperature being around 25- 30 0c

– Some other molds are psychrophilic.

– Few moulds are aerobes and can grow over a wide

range of pH values but the majority are favored by
an acid pH
 Incidence and types cont…
• The most important moulds in relation to foods are :-
• Asperigilli
• Penicillia
• Mucor and rhiazopus
• Geotrichum /dry mould
• Sporotricum
5.0.Primary Sources of
Microorganisms In Foods And
Beverages
• There are eight environmental source of organisms that may
invades foods

5.1. Soil and water

- Soil is a very rich environment in microbes and is a major
source of contamination of foods and water
- Bacilus , Clostriduim , Enterobacter, Escharcia Micrococcus ,
Alkaligens , Flavobacterium , Pseudomonas , Proteous ,
Aerobacter ,Moulds and Yeasts are kind of organisms that
contaminate food and water from soil
- Water is also important source of food contamination
 5.2 .Plants and plant products

• Many soil and water organisms contaminate plants.

• However, only a relatively small number find the plant

environment suitable to their overall well-being .

• Those that persist on plant products do so by virtue of a

capacity to adhere to plant surfaces.

• The Lactic acid bacteria and some yeast are the most notable
examples.

• Cornybacterium, Curnobacterium, Pseudomonas

Xanthomonas and fungal pathogens can also exist.
 5.3. Food Utensils
• When vegetables are harvested in containers and utensils,
one would expect to find some or all of the surface organisms
on the product to contaminate the contact surfaces.

• As more and more vegetables are placed in the same

containers, a normalization of the flora would be expected to
occur.

• In a similar way, the cutting block in meat market along with

cutting knives and grinders are contaminated from initial
samples and build up the flora.
 5.4. Intestinal tracks of humans and animals

• This flora becomes a water sources when polluted water is

used to wash raw food products.

• The intestinal flora consists of many organisms that do not

persist as long in water as do others.

• A good example is Salmonella species.

• Many of the Enterobacteriace group are expected in the fecal

wastes, along with intestinal pathogens including some
protozoan pathogens.
 5.5. Food Handlers
• The micro flora on the hands and other garments of handlers :-
– Generally reflects the environment and habitat of the
individuals

– The organisms in questions may be those from soils,

waters, dust and other environmental sources.

• The nasal cavities, the mouth, the skin and those from the
gastrointestinal tract that may be a source of food contaminants/
entry to foods
 5.6. Animal Feeds
• Salmonella is the notorious organisms that can be transmitted
to poultry and other farm animal through animal feeds.

• Incase of some silage it is a known source of Listeria

monocytogens to diary and meat animals.
•
• The organisms in dry animal feed are spread throughout the
animal environment and may occur in the animal hides.
• The use of probiotics must be regulated
 5.7. Animal Hides

• In the case of milk cows, the type of organisms found in raw

milk can be a reflection of the flora of the udder

• If proper procedures are not followed during milking and the

general environment of such animals is contaminated

• From both the udders and hide, organisms can contaminate

the general environment, milk containers and the hands of
handlers.
 5.8. Air and dust

• Most of the organisms that are listed above may be

suspended in the air and dust in the food processing rooms.

• The gram positive bacteria can persist long. Some fungi also
occur in air and dust along with some yeast.
 6.0. Summary
• Public health microbiology deals with microbiological analysis
of water , food and beverages

• The core function of public health microbiology laboratory is

– Providing a comprehensive laboratory service for public
health problems
– Improving and regulating laboratory services
 6.0. Summary cont…
• Bacteria , moulds , yeast , protozoa are the
known microorganisms for contamination of
foods

• Soil, water, air , plant and plant products ,

animal hides , food utensils , intestinal tract
of human and animals and food handlers are
the source of contamination.
• References
• S. P. Borriello, W. P Hammes, W. Holzapfel,P. Marteau, J. Schrezenmeir, M.
Vaara, and V. Valtonen: Safety of Probiotics That Contain Lactobacilli or
Bifidobacteria, Clinical Infectious Diseases 2003; 36:775–80
• Joseph E.Wiliam J H. 1998. Modernization of Public Health Laboratories in a
Privatization Atmosphere ,Guest commentary. Journal Clinic Microbiol. 609–
613
• The roles of laboratories and blood bank in disaster situations. A practical
guide developed at the workshop held in Managua, Nicaragua, on 7 June
2001. Pan American Health Organization ,Regional Office of the World
Health Organization.
• D.G.Revell, Functions of a Public Health Laboratory American Journal Of
Public Hygiene, 1909, Edmonton, Alberta.(internet sources)
• Joseph E. McDade and William J. Hausler, Jr. 1998. Modernization of Public
Health Laboratories in a Privatization Atmosphere. J. Clin. Microbiol.
36(3):609-613.