"Do not be anxious about

anything, but in everything by

prayer and supplication with
thanksgiving let your requests be
made known to God.”
Philippians 4:6
 Morning Prayer of Daylight Strength
Dear Lord,
This daylight, upon waking and getting ready for my day, I
pray that you give me strength today, to be strong for You in
this world full of temptations.
Lord, You know that there are struggles I will go through
today. I pray that you be with me as I go through them. Carry
me when I am too weak. If I stumble into temptation, forgive
me Father. Lead me away from them, Father. I need Your
strength to overcome these evils.
When I triumph against them, I praise you, Father. For
without You, I will not be where I am and I will not have the
strength I have.
 Morning Prayer of Daylight Strength

Bless my loved ones with the strength You have

given me, Lord. You are worthy of all praises
and the entire honor in the world. You are my
strength and my protection.
Keep me and my family safe at all times, Lord,
especially those who are in transit during this
morning.
In Your Son Jesus’ name, I pray, Amen.
# My October in 3 words

1st Grading Exams PNU- Manila

PNU Virtual
DPE meeting Sportsfest
Class Classroom Observations
2023

DPE Submission SSLG Submission

1st Draft LP Election 2nd Draft LP
Class exemplar exemplar
CEAP Congress Waterfront

UN
Celebration
# busy # blessed # challenging
Developmental Reading
DPE 2023 1st Semester

Mrs. Lea Mae A. Ladonga, LPT, MATE

Curriculum Outline
Curriculum Outline
CMO No. 52 s. 2007 ADDENDUM TO CMO no. 30 s. 2004 entitled “REVISED
POLICIES & STANDARDS FOR UNDERGRADUATE TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM
Developmental Reading
Course Description:

This is a course designed to develop

understanding of theories relating to the
learning and improving the reading skills
among Elementary and Secondary
Students using various approaches and
strategies in teaching reading. It aims to
develop the necessary skills needed to
teach reading to the school children.
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of the sessions, the learners should be
to:
1. acquire knowledge and understanding of the
nature of reading and its skills to enable the students to
read and become fluent readers;
2. revisit the teaching practices of reading skills to
enable the students to read and become fluent readers;
3. strengthen one's ability to interview, to give
feedback, to gather information and to organize data for
reporting;
4. initiate needed shifts from the traditional to holistic
modes of reading instruction for effective and meaningful
Reading
- Complex process of decoding printed symbols in order
to derive meaning from them.
- Traditionally, reading is looking at a string of printed
symbols either silently or aloud- written or printed
 Reading
- the process of looking at a series of written symbols
and getting meaning from them
- When we read, we use our eyes to receive written
symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and
- we use our brain to convert them into words,
sentences and paragraphs that communicate
something to us.
 Reading
- a process that is carried and used by readers who want to
get the message delivered by the author through the
medium of words or written language. (Tarigan
(1990:7) in Jaenal 2010)
 Reading
- It is decoding and understanding written texts. Decoding requires
translating the symbols of writing system (including Braille) into
the spoken words which they represent.
- Understanding is determined by the purposes for reading, the
context, the nature of the text, and the readers’ strategies and
knowledge. Cline et.al (2006: 2),
Diane Henry Leipzig ( 2013)
• Reading is a multifaceted
process involving word
recognition, comprehension,
fluency, and motivation
Diane Henry Leipzig ( 2013)
• Reading is making meaning from
print. It requires the readers to:

▫ Identify the words in print – a

process called word recognition
• Construct an understanding
from them – a process called
comprehension
• Coordinate identifying words
and making meaning so that
reading is automatic and
accurate – an achievement
called fluency
Foreign Language Teaching Methods(2010)
Professional development modules for foreign language instruction

• A process undertaken to reduce uncertainty

about meanings a text conveys
• The process resulting from a negotiation of
meaning between the text and its reader
• The knowledge, expectations, and strategies a
reader uses to uncover textual meaning, which
all play decisive roles when the reader negotiates
with the text’s meaning
 Kenneth Goodman ( 1988)
• Reading is a psycholinguistics guessing
game.
• Reading is a receptive psycholinguistic
process wherein the actor uses strategies to
create meaning from the text.
• The reader has to do two tasks at the same
time:
- produce oral language determined by
graphic input
-make sense of what is being read.
• The reader uses prior knowledge and
depends on that knowledge they already
have when reading.
 Dnot bieleve waht ouyr
feirnd siad aoubt rdaening.
Ts’I ttloaly asburd!
The 3- Cueing System
by: Marilyn Adams(1998)

1. What does the Venn

Diagram imply?
2. Is reading an
independent skill?
Why? Why not?
Facts about Reading ( Research- Based)
1. Children’s literacy development begins long before children start formal
instruction in elementary school. ( Arlington & Cunningham, et al.,
2009)
2. More than 4 in 10 pre- schoolers, five in ten toddlers, and six in ten
babies are not read to regularly.
3. Children benefit from experiences in early childhood that foster
language development, cultivate a motivation to read, and establish a
link between print and spoken words. Later, students need to develop a
clear understanding of the relationship between letters and sounds, and
an ability to obtain meaning from what they read.
4. Reading aloud to children helps develop and improve literacy skills –
reading, writing, speaking and listening
5. Reading and writing are a developmental continuum rather than
acquired skills.
Facts about Reading ( Research- Based)
6. Children learn to read and write by being read to, reading simple text,
and experimenting with writing
7. Due to different brain signature, 20- 40% of the population does not
acquire phonemic awareness. ( Grossen, 1997)
8. Certain abilities must be developed that work together to create strong
reading skills. These are:
- Phonemic Awareness - Alphabetic principle
- Sound- spelling correspondence - Decoding ability
- Spelling, vocabulary,& writing skills - Comprehension skills
9. Learners become engaged in literacy as they grow ,ore strategic,
motivated, knowledgeable, and socially interactive.
10. Some researchers describe two levels of literacy: emergent and
conventional. More traditional researchers define three levels: early reader,
transitional reader and fluent reader
Facts about Reading ( Research- Based)
11. Reading and writing rely on a specific set of cognitive skills such as attention,
memory, symbolic thinking, and self- regulation.
12. children’s reading and writing abilities develop together.
13. All children need to have high- quality children’s books as a part of their daily
experience.
14. Teaching with a flexible mix of research- based instructional methods, geared
toward individual students, is more effective than strict adherence to any approach.
15. A well – organized. Comprehensive approach to the teaching of reading that
includes systematic teaching of specific reading skills produces better readers.
16. Teachers need to know and understand the most up-to-date reading research
and be able to implement it in their classrooms.
17. Teachers must be able to identify reading difficulties in the learners early on
and arrange appropriate and effective interventions in response. Young learners
need continuing encouragement and individualized instruction to succeed in
learning to read.
Research- based Task 1st Take Home
Instructions: Research about 15 different facts
about research among all the learners.
- One- two sentence only summary for the thought/
gist
- Include the reference ( author/proponent, year
published)
-all researches/publication must be from 2017-
2022 only
2nd Take Home
CHARACTERISTICS OF READING
 - The reading
performance is
affected by a number

Reading is of factors that is why it

is difficult to explain

a complex why an individual

performance may be

process satisfactory or
unsatisfactory.
 Reading
Physiological

involves
Cognitive

many
Communication

processes.
Psycho- Social
PHYSIOLOGICAL

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Reading is largely a visual
process.
-Reading involves both an organic or
physiological process and a mental or
cognitive process.
- In the physiological process, the most
basic step is for the eyes to see,
identify, and recognize the printed word
or images.
The light patterns from the printed
symbols hit the fovea areas or
closely packed sensory cells of the
retina.
 In turn, this induces chemical changes
that create patterns of nerve currents
into the optic nerve fiber.
Then these
currents
travel to a
center in
the mid-
brain.
Finally, using the
current that travel
to the mid-brain,
the cerebral
cortex interprets
the symbols.
-The stage of reading revolves around
the ability to identify and recognize
words which are the smallest unit of
visual identification and meaningful
recognition.
-Studies show eye movement in reading
with the eye perceiving and pausing on
the printed material horizontally from
left to right and top-to-bottom or right
to left and bottom-to-top.
 Scientific experiments have also shown that there are several eye movements:

 Fixation – the eyes stopping or getting fixated

on the word/s.
 Inter-fixation – the eyes moving from stopping
point to the other.
 Return sweeps – the eyes swinging back from
the end line to the beginning of the next line.
 Saccades – short quick hop and jump
movements done especially by literate people,
to move ahead on a line of point.
Regression – done in case there is
need to double check what is being
read.
Span of recognition – the eyes
recognition of a group of words.
COGNITIVE

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 TWO STEPS INVOLVED IN COGNITION:
• The extraneous process creates a stimulus on
the visual centers of the brain. Namely, word
recognition or the written symbols and
attentive adjustment by the reader on these
symbols.
• Fusion/ interpretation/ construction of
meaning by the mind out of the stimuli.
LEVELS OF
COMPREHENSION
Levels of
Comprehension
Higher comprehension skills are characterized
by:
Self-awareness
Careful reading and greater retention
Making previous assumptions or hypothesis
The deliberate and combined ability to
reflect, question, classify, summarize, and
predict
Information reading which gives attention to
SQ3R
 What is SQ3R

3Rs
 Communication

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 - It is a communication
among the author,
Reading reader, and the text.
Communication gap
takes a
results to poor
multiple comprehension but
process. once resolved better
comprehension takes
place.
How can the author, reader, and
the text be able to communicate
avoiding 'communication gap’?
 LANGUAGE is a code
system used by humans
to communicate.

Diversity in languages,
result to diversities
of the code system or
symbol system- a devise
used by man.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC
Reading is not
only an
individual
activity, but one
that has broad
psycho-social
dimensions.

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In the globe, not
only an ordinary
citizens read, but
people in the
corporate world,
in intentional
politics, as well as
in the global
development and
peace efforts.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
If we humans can
acquire higher
reading skills,
then possibly
progress, peace
and development
in the world can
advance at a
faster pace.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under

 Facts about Reading
•Every second of the day, people read messages from
official communication, mass media and the Internet.
•Through the Internet alone which is today’s most popular
form of communication, people can read and interact
immediately to emails, news and information websites,
other forms of informational/commercial/ political/
developmental/
websites, as well as blog-sites which are interactive
journals on all facets of modern.

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 Facts about Reading
•Needless to say, reading is a social activity that engages
humans in the world.
•It is also a purposeful social communication, as it involves
all facets of life from what is private to what is official, from
what is personal to one that is public.
•The working of businesses, industries, schools,
governments, foundations, and international agencies like
the GRN and the United Nations would be stalled without
reading as a human activity.

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 Facts about Reading
•Reading is also a professional as it is a form of
communication done in all the professions and
human pursuits including scientific and
technological research and studies.

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 Facts about Reading
•Reading is a unique activity which one can adopt everyday.
•Speaking of reading as a skill like other skill (dancing,
writing, acting, sports) it is something you can continually
improve upon. Countless hours have been spent in these
other skills and so one should not be reluctant to accept
suggestion of his reading ability for constructive
development.
•In sum, reading, can mean difference between the amateur
and professional, as well as successful career person one
wishes to become.

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 3rd Take- Home Exercise
1. Write a 500- word Position Paper on the
current trends and issues of reading in terms
of it as a Psycho- Social Process.
2. Choose an issue that you are most
comfortable so that writing about it will not be
that bothersome on your part.
3. Cite researches or other readings to support
your claims.
 What is
Developmental
Reading?
Developmental Reading
• A kind of reading in which the materials are scientifically
prepared and aimed at developing the reading skills of learners.
Vocabulary and sentence structures are controlled and follow a
set of criteria for sequencing.
• Wiriyachitra ( 1982) suggested to reading techniques.
***Skimming which can either be Preview( reader’s check if the material is written by a
specialist and if it contains the needed information, Overviewing( reader checks on the purpose and the scope of

the material) &Survey( reader gets the general idea of the text) and Scanning( quick and fast way of
getting information

- Focus on the specific -Know the clues

- Move your eyes quickly down - read the section with clues
Kinds of Reading Skills ( Anderson, 1994)
1. Word Attack Skills - allowing the readers to
figure out new words
2. Comprehension skills – helping the readers
predict the next word, phrase, or sentence quickly
enough to speed recognition
3. Fluency skills – aiding the readers to see the
larger segments, phrases, and group of words as a
whole
4. Critical Reading skills – helping the reader see the
relationship of ideas and use these in reading with
meaning and fluency
Word Attack Skills
- Ability to convert graphic symbols into intelligible
language
- also known as decoding
Reading skills come from the following :
1. Seeing language as made up of units of sound and
units of meaning
2. Seeing print as letters symbolizing sounds, words,
and discourse units of language such as sentences,
paragraphs and quotations
3. Seeing relationships of ideas and the ability to
infer, evaluate, and conclude
Examples of word attack skills

- Seeing the component parts of words

- Blending these parts into new words
- Recognizing syllable patterns
- Recognizing symbols for consonant sounds
- Recognizing symbols for vowel sounds
- Recognizing symbols for tone and other
suprasegmental features
 Examples of word attack skills

- Recognizing capital letters and knowing when

to use them
- Recognizing punctuation and how it affects
reading for meaning and expression
- Recognizing the use to mark word breaks and
paragraphs
- Using the above skills simultaneously with
comprehension and critical reading skills
Fluency Skills
-Ability to translate letters- to- sounds-to- words
fluently, effortlessly
-La Berge and Samuels ( 1974) describe the fluent
reader as “ one whose decoding processes are
automatic, requiring no conscious attention.”
-Reading words with no noticeable cognitive or mental
effort ( automaticity)
-For learners to develop fluency, they must:
a. Perform the task or demonstrate the skill
accurately
b. Perform the pre – skills of the task quickly and
effortlessly
Critical Skills in Fluency with text
1. Letter Sound Fluency
Produces letter- sound correspondences ( 1 per second).
( Grade 1)
Ex. Given a set of letters, the pupils, the pupils can produce
the associated sound within one second
2. Irregular Word Fluency
Read sight words automatically ( Grade 1 and 2)
Ex. Given a set of irregular words in a passage, pupils can
identify words in 1 second or less
3. Oral Reading Fluency
Reads connected text fluently
Ex. By the end of grade 2, pupils should read 90- 100 words
per minute
Comprehension Skills
• Comprehension is based on:
a. Knowledge that reading make sense,
b. Readers’ prior knowledge,
c. Information presented in the text,
d. The use of context to assist recognition of
words and meaning
Examples
- Understanding that print conveys meaning
- Using context as an aid to reading
- Using prior knowledge as an aid to reading
- Using predictability as an aid to reading
Strategies for Improving Comprehension
1. Activate prior knowledge
2. Understand paragraph structure
3. Understand textbook structure
4. Improve vocabulary
5. Establish purpose for reading
6. Generate questions
7. Use anticipation guides
Critical Reading Skills
- As a goal it includes the ability to evaluate ideas
socially or politically.
- The ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize
what one reads
- Ability to see relationships of ideas and use them
as an aid in reading
Examples

1. Seeing questions and expecting answers

2. Seeing cause and effect
3. Seeing steps in a process
4. Seeing comparisons
5. Seeing generalizations and itemization
 4th Take- Home Exercise

1. Name at least 12 Learning activities that might

be used in order to develop the 4 reading skills
of the young learners.
2. Make sure to mention 3 only for each reading
skill. Write the mechanics/ instructions of the
activity and give a sample for each.
3. Make sure to write your assessment for each
activity.
Profile of a Proficient Reader(Gear,2006)
A good reader is metacognitive – aware of
and able to use and articulate the following
strategies in order to interact with the text and
enhanced meaning.
a. Make connections
b. Ask questions
c. Visualize
d. Determine Importance
e. Draw inferences
f. Analyze and Synthesize
g. Monitor comprehension
Theory of Cognitive
Development
Jean Piaget: 1969
 Theory of Cognitive Development

One of the most famous theories used

to explain children’s overall cognitive
development.
It can be used by literacy educators to
understand the learning stages through
which students progress as they mature
and their relationship to literacy
achievement.
One of the most famous theories used
to explain children’s overall cognitive
development.
It can be used by literacy educators to
understand the learning stages through
which students progress as they mature
and their relationship to literacy
achievement.
 Factors That Affect Thinking

Biological Maturation

Activity

Social Experiences

Equilibration
 Factors That
Affect Thinking

STAGES OF
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Sensorimotor:
Birth – 2 Years of Age
Sensory exploration of
the world: Children do
not have language skills
and are dependent on
their senses.

Activities for Literacy

Board books with
brightly colored
pictures
Books with sound,
things to touch, or
smell
Preoperational:
2 Years – 7 Years of Age
Preoperational:
2 Years – 7 Years of Age
This stage is
categorized with rapid
language development.
Children begin to
categorize with words.
Activities for Literacy
Story book reading
and discussing the
story
Concrete Operational:
7 Years – 11 Years of
Age
In this stage of
development,
children use concrete
objects to begin to
think about abstract
concepts.
Activities for
Literacy
Graphic Organizers
{Venn Diagrams,
Flow Maps}
Formal Operational:
11 Years of Age - Adult
Volunteer Activities for
Teach your preteen the Literacy
value that comes from
giving back to society by
spending some time
volunteering in your
community.
Board Games
Nurture your child’s developing logic
and reasoning skills with board games,
and he will never notice you are using
fun games for educational purposes.
Bake-a-Thon Activities for
The teen starts to Literacy
reject quality time
together but Makeover Moments
couldn’t say no for The learning stuff is
opportunities to important during this
indulge in tasty
stage, but some one-on-
chocolate brownies,
gooey chocolate one time to just indulge
chip cookies or can help to foster a
scrumptious strong and lasting
cinnamon buns. relationship through the
upcoming teenage years
 3-2-1 Process
3 Key 2 sub- ideas 1 Major
Concepts Insight
DEVELOPMENTAL
READING STAGES
Jean Chall(1983) - world-
renowned psychologist,
reading expert, and
professor emeritus at
Harvard University
 Developmental Reading Stages
Learning to recognize the alphabet,
Stage 0 (Birth-Age 6) imitation reading,
Reading Readiness/ experimentation with letters and
learning sounds
Pre Reading Understanding the world around
them

Stage 1 (Age 6-7,

Sounding out words from print
Grade 1-2) Utilize consonants and vowels to
Initial Reading or blend together simple words

Decoding
 Developmental Reading Stages
Considered to be on the ‘real’
Stage 2(Age 7-8, Grades 2- reading stage. They are fairly
3) good at reading and spelling
and are ready to read
Fluency without sounding everything
out.
Re-reading allows them to
concentrate on meaning and
builds fluency
Stage 3 (Age 9-13, Grades 4 to
2nd Year)
Sounding out unfamiliar words
Reading for Learning the New and read with fluency
Stage
Readers need to bring prior
knowledge to their reading
Acquisition of facts
 Developmental Reading Stages
Readers are instructed in reading
and study skills
Stage 4 (High School; Ages 14-
18) Learn to analyze what they read
and react critically
Multiple Viewpoints Stage
Share multiple views and concepts

Reads materials useful to them and

apply those skills
Stage 5 (College; Ages 18 and Readers know what not to read, as
up) well as what to read
Construction and They have the ability to synthesize
Reconstruction Stage critically the works of others
and able to defend their stand
on specific issues
Stage 0 through Stage 2 are the “ learning to read”
stages of development. These are the stages where
the child is doing just that - learning to read.
Stage 3 through Stage 5 are the phases where the
child is “ reading to learn”. This is where the child
reads on his own to increase knowledge based on
topics read

The progression from one stage to another is

dependent upon mastery of each previous stage,
many learners may operate in as many as two or
three stages during their school years.
Reading Pyramid
able to
construct
meaning from
the words read
Comprehension

Vocabulary
Fluency
Read text quickly Knowing what
And accurately the words mean
-a combination of
Word Identification- Fluency and word
Ability to see a word identification
And know what it is

Decoding- is where children begin to sound out words

Phonics- ability to identify letters and their specific sounds

Phonemic Awareness- is the foundation of reading because it is the ability to

understand that words are made up of sounds
 5th Take – Home Exercise
My Age What I was How I was Who taught Reflection
taught to read taught to read me how to
read
 6th Take- Home exercise
Conduct an interview to a pupil/student/learner
who belongs to the different developmental
reading stages.
Write an interview report as regards the students’
progress in his/ her current developmental stage.
Sample questions:
How would you describe your reading ability?
What reading skills have you developed? Are you
aware of your developmental stage? How do your
parents/ teachers help you in your reading?
Attach proof/s of the interview session
Theory of Literacy
Development
Holdaway: 1979
 Theory of Literacy Development
Holdaway believes that learning to read was
a natural development that is closely linked
to a child’s natural development of oral
language skills.
There are four key components to this
theory:
Observation
Collaboration
Practice
Performance
 Collaboration
Observation
Children need the opportunity Children need to interact
to observe literacy behaviors with others who provide
from others. For example, being encouragement and help
read to from a parent. with the reading process.

Key
Components

Practice Performance
Children need the opportunity Children need the
to practice alone in order to opportunity to share their
self evaluate, make corrections,
and increase their skills
new reading skills with
independently. those who support them.
 Characteristics that Facilitate
Natural Literacy Development
Parent – Child interactions of
modeling literacy behaviors
Rich literacy classroom
environment
 Labeling key items around the
room
 Wide variety of high quality
reading materials
 Meaningful language experiences
 Use of big books and shared
reading
 Big Books
 Holdaway highly recommends
the use of big books and
shared reading to foster
natural literacy development.
 He believes big books can
create the same positive
feelings about story time that
children have when they read
at home.
 He believes that these natural
storytelling times build
student’s oral language, print
tracking, concept of letters,
and words.
 Stage Models of Reading
Chall: 1983
Frith: 1985
Ehri: 1991
Gough, Juel, and Griffith: 1992
Stage Model theorists believe lower
staged reading strategies remain available
to a reader as they incorporate more
difficult reading skills in later strategies.
Stages are provided to have a better
understanding of the reading process.
Stage Model theorists believe students
increase the number of strategies used
during reading as their reading skills
develop.
Four Stages of Word Identification
Pre – Alphabetic Stage {Logographic Stage}
 Visual cues are primary method of word
identification
 One might memorize words by their shape or “look”
 Use of environmental print and logos
 Word Identification is not yet related to letter –
sound knowledge
Activities for Literacy
 Collect samples of Environmental Print to display in
the classroom.
 Partial Alphabetic Stage
 “Phonetic Cue Reading”
Use of some letter – sound cues
First letter of the word
Use just a letter or two
 Full Alphabetic Stage
 Student relies more on letter – sound knowledge
 Student tries to process all the letters in a word
 Child may become tied to letter-by-letter reading
which slows down the reading process
 Activities for Literacy
 Puzzles, Word Card Games, Magnetic Letters,
Alphabet Books
 Magazine Search, Letter Bingo
 Word Sort: Beginning, Middle, and End Sounds
Consolidated
Alphabetic Stage
 Automatic knowledge of
sound – letter relationships
 Read letter patterns within
words
 Use word family knowledge
to aid the reading process
Activities for Literacy
 Word Wheels, Word Family
Sorts, Poetry, Flip Books
The Reading Act
The Reading Process
Definitions of reading are generally divided in
two major types:

1. Those that equate reading with

interpretation of experience generally, and
2. Those that restrict the definition to the
interpretation of graphic symbols. (Smith,
et al., 1995)
Why do we need to understand
the reading process?

A) Material production
B) Teaching
C) Training teachers
The most successful reading instruction is is
based on a solid understanding of the reading
process itself, and which promotes the
acquisitions of good reading strategies.
(Cooper, 1986)
 Reading Stages
1. Pleasure – involves a willing suspension of belief as
the reader inhabits the created world.
2. Naturalization – includes translating the text into
situations or persons that seem familiar to the reader.
Elements in the text which do not naturalize easily are
often ignored or even distorted.
3. Responding – This refers to sympathizing or hating,
accepting or resisting the situation and/or characters.
Such response generally begins with “ I like...” or “I don’t
like…”
4. Recognition – an act of appreciating reading
being put in words.
5. Identification – refers to the vicarious connection
with the characters, events, situations, making them
part of the world rather than joining them.
6. Critical dialogue – To some degree, this refers to
re-writing, teasing out a hidden story or implications.
7. Analytical-Critical – involves text analysis, self-
analysis, and analysis of literary and cultural
repertory of both.
8. Questioning the text – Looking for
oppositions, contradictions in the text as well
as challenges of initial oppositions, conflicts.
9. Your own response – The changing
focus, approach, identification.
10. Intratextual-dramatic – The relation of
the part to the whole, the primary level of
literary understanding.
11. Authorial – The relation of text to the
author, and the author’s other works. This
requires being familiar with the author’s life,
works, and recurrent pre-occupations.
12. Historical – The relation of the text to milieu. How
has a text reflected or help to create its culture.
13. Allusive – The relation of text to others texts, past
and present or intertextuality.
14. Generic – The relation of text to other texts of
similar kind.
15. Philosophical – The relationship of the text to the
world of ideas. It may include how the world can be
napped onto specific religious or ideologies –
Christianity, Marxism, Freudian, or Jungian
psychology, feminism).
16. Subjective – The relationship of the text to the
reader’s experience.
FIVE ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS
OF READING
PHONEMIC
AWARENESS
The knowledge and manipulation of
sounds in spoken words. Phonemic
awareness is the ability to hear,
identify, and manipulate individual
sounds, known as phonemes, in
spoken words.

PHONEMIC AWARENESS
Example of Phonemic
Awareness Skills:

1. Blending - What word an I trying to

say? Mmmmmmmop.
2. Segmentation - First sound isolation:
What is the first sound in mop?
3. Segmentation - last sound isolation:
What is the last sound in mop?
4. Segmentation - Complete: What are
all the sounds you hear in mop?

The best predictor of reading difficulty in

kindergarten or first grade is the ability
to segment words and syllables into
constituent sound units.
(phonemic awareness) (Lyon)
Why is phonemic awareness
important?

There are three reasons identified

1. t requires to notice how letters
represent sounds. It primes reader for
print.
2. It gives readers a way to approach
sounding out and reading new words.
3. It helps readers understand the
alphabetic principle- that the letters in
words are systematically represented
Why is Phonemic Awareness
Difficult?

Although there are 26 letters in the

English language, there are
approximately 40 phonemes, or
sound units.
Critical Features of Phonemic
Awareness

• Phonemic awareness is a critical

component f reading instruction
but not an entire program. It
absolutely needs to be taught, but
should only be 10-15 minutes per
day of your entire program.
• Phonemic Awareness can be best taught
and can have better results with small
groups of children, In critical phonemic
awareness pupils, should learn:

1. Sound isolation- Example: the first

sound in SUN /sss/
2. Blending- Example: /sss/-/nnn/ is
SUN.
3. Segmenting- Example: The sounds in
SUN are /sss/-/uuu/-/nnn/
Phonemic Awareness
Benchmarks
Kindergarten: Pupils should demonstrate
these skills at the end of kindergarten.

1. Sound and word Discrimination

-Tells whether words or sounds are the same
or different.cat/cat=same; cat/car=different
-Identifies which word is different. sun,fun,sun
-Tells the difference between single speech
sounds. Which one is different? s,s,k
2. Rhyming
- Identifies whether words rhyme: cat/mat;
ring/sing
- Produces a word that rhymes with another. A
word that rhymes with rose s nose. Tell me
another word that rhymes with rose.
3. Blending
- Orally blends syllables (mon-key) or onset
rimes (m-ilk) into a whole word.
- Orally blends 2-3 separately spoken
phonemes into one-syllable words ( m-e me;
u-p up; f-u-n fun)
4. Segmentation
- Claps or counts the words in a 3-5 word
sentence (Sue can jump far).
- Claps or counts the syllables in 1-2 and 3-
syllable words.
- Says each syllable in 2 and 3 syllable word
(/m/ in man).
- Identifies the first sounds in 2 and 3
phoneme, one syllable words (run /r/ /u/ /n/;
feet /f/ /ee/ /t/).
An awareness of individual sounds in
language is necessary to acquire the
ability to read alphabetic language. It
is the most important pre-reading skill
in determining success in learning to
read. (Pearson,1998)
Levels of Phonemic awareness
1. Spoken words 3.Syllables
2. Phonemes 4. Onsets and
rimes

Here are things to do to help learners

develop phonemic awareness:

-Teach them phonemic awareness skills.

- Use activities for developing phonemic
awareness.
Phonological awareness
benchmarks for kindergarten
(Carbo,1989)

1. 25 first sounds per minute by midyear

2. 35 sounds segments per minute by the

end of kindergarten.
1. What are the reading stages? Explain each in a
sentence.
2. What are the essential components of reading? What
makes these essentials?
3. How can a teacher predict/ determine whether or not the
child in kindergarten or first grade has reading
difficulty?
4. Explain the critical features of phonemic awareness?
5. What is expected of pupils at the end of kindergarten
instruction?

7th Take- Home Comprehension Check

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My Insights
PHONICS
• The relationship between written and
spoken letters and sounds. Phonics is the
relationship between the spoken and written
languages. It is the ability to hear, identify,
and use sounds that make up words.

Phonics
- refers to the sound-symbol (phoneme-grapheme)
relationships in the teaching of reading
- the understanding that there is a predictable
relationship between the letters (graphemes) of
written language and the individual sounds
(phonemes) of spoken language
- Phonics instruction teaches children to use these
relationships to read to read and write words.
- Teachers of reading and publishers of reading
programs sometimes use different labels to
describe these relationships, including the following:

1. Letter-sound associations
2. Letter-sound correspondences
3. Sound-symbol correspondences
4. Graphophonemic relationships
5. Sound-spellings

* the goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn and

use the understanding that there are relationships between
written letters and spoken sounds.
• Knowing these relationship will help children
recognize familiar words accurately and
automatically, and “decode” new words.
• In short, knowledge of the alphabetic principle
contributes greatly to children’s ability to read
words both in isolation and in connected text.

• Scientifically-based research tells us that

systematic and explicit phonics instruction is
more effective than non-systematic or no
phonics instruction.
 Vowel phonics patterns
• Short vowels are the 5 single letter vowels: a, e, I, o, and u
when they produce the sounds /ӕ/ as in cat; /ἐ/ as in bet; /I/ as
in sit; /ᴧ/ as in cup. Short vowels are NOT diphthongs.

• Long vowels are synonymous with the name of single letter

vowels, such as /EI/ in baby; /ai/ in tiny; /ou/ in broken. The
vowel sounds. From the 26 letters of the English alphabet, 5 of
these letters are used to make the vowel sounds. The other 21
letters are used make the 25 consonant sounds.

The vowel phonemes consist of:

5 long vowels
5 short vowels
3 diphthongs
The 5 long vowel sounds: The 5 short vowel
sounds:
1. Long /e/ as in GATE 1. Short /a/ as in BAT
2. Long ē as in NEED 2. Short /e/ as in BET
3. Long /i/ as in NIECE 3. Short /i/ as in BIT
4. Long /o/ as in YOKE 4. Short /o/ as in BOTH
5. Long /u/ as in YOU 5. Short /u/ as in BUT
What are the ways in
teaching Phonics?
Most teachers are acquainted with several approaches to
phonics instruction. The distinctions between approaches are
not absolute, and some programs of instruction combine
approaches.
Approaches to Phonics Instruction

1. Synthetic phonics – Children learn how to convert letters

or letter combinations into sounds, and then how to blend the
sounds together to form recognizable words.

2. Analytic phonics – Children learn to analyse letter-sound

relationships in previously learned words. They do not
pronounce sounds in isolation.

3. Analogy-based phonics – Children learn to use parts of

word families they know to identify words they don’t know that
have similar parts.
4. Phonics through spelling – Children learn to
segment words into phonemes and to make words by
writing letters for phonemes.
5. Embedded phonics – Children are taught letter-
sound relationships during the reading of connected
text.
6. Onset-rime phonics instruction – Children learn
to identify the sound of the letter or letters before the
first vowel (the onset) in a one-syllable word and the
sound of the remaining part of the word (the rime).

Systematic and explicit phonics instruction provides

practice with letter-sound relationship in a
predetermined sequence.
The following are questions that a reading teacher should ask
himself:
1. How long should phonics be taught? – Approximately 2
years of phonics instruction is sufficient for most pupils. If
phonics instruction begins early in kindergarten, it should be
completed by the end of first grade.
2. What kinds of reading materials should I look for? –
usually, practice materials are in the form of short books or
stories that contain words that provide children with practice
in using the specific letter-sound relationships they are
learning.
3. What else should I look for in phonics programs? -
Programs should acknowledge that systematic phonics
instruction is a mean to an end. Some phonics programs
focus primarily on teaching a large number of letter-sound
relationships.
4. How can I tell if aphonics program is systematic and
explicit?- A program of systematic phonic instruction clearly
identifies a carefully selected and useful set of letter-sound
relationships and then organizes the introduction of these
relationships into a logical instructional sequences.

5. What do non-systematic programs of phonics instruction

look like? – encourage informal phonics instruction based on the
teacher’s perceptions of what students need to learn and when
they need to learn it.

6. Does phonics instruction slow down the progress of some

children? – Phonics instruction is to support the reading progress
of all of your student , it is important to work in flexible instructional
groups and to pace instruction to maximize pupil progress.
7. Doesn’t phonics instruction get in the way of reading
comprehension? – Quite of opposite true, systematic phonics
instructions helps children to identify words, it increases their ability
to comprehend what they read, automatically enables children to
focus on the meaning of text.

8. How does systematic and explicit phonics instruction affect

spelling? – it produce more growth of spelling among kindergarten
and first-grade pupils than non- systematic or no phonics programs.

9. How does systematic and explicit instruction affect the

reading and spelling of older pupils? – Systematic phonics
instruction by itself may not significantly improve the overall reading
and spelling performance of readers beyond first grade. The effects
of phonics instruction on pupils in second through sixth grades are
limited to improving their word reading and oral text reading skills.
Phonics Programs: Effective programs offer
instructions that:
• Helps systematically instruct kids in how to relate letters and sounds,
how to break spoken words into sounds, and how to blend sounds to
form words.
• Help kids understand why they are learning the relationship between
letters and sounds.
• Helps kids apply their knowledge of phonics as they read words,
sentences and text.
• Helps kids apply what they learn about sounds and letters to their own
writing;
• Can be adapted to needs of individuals, based on assessment;
• Includes alphabetic knowledge, phonemic awareness, vocabulary
development, and the reading of text, as well as systematic phonics
instruction.
• Non-systematic phonics instruction often neglects
vowels, even though knowing vowel letter-sound
relationships is a crucial part of knowing the alphabetic
system. It does not provide practice materials that other
children the opportunity to apply what they are learning
about letter-sound relationships.
• Phonics instruction helps children learn the relationships
between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken
language.

• Phonics instruction is important because it leads to an

understanding of the alphabetical principle – the systematic and
predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds.
• Phonics programs are effective when they are
systematic – the plan of instruction includes a carefully
selected set of letter-sound relationships that are organized
into a logical sequence; explicit – the programs provide
teachers with precise directions for the teaching of these
relationships.
• Effective phonics programs provide sample opportunities
for children to apply what they are learning about letters and
sounds to the reading of words, sentences and stories.
• Systematic and explicit phonics instruction significantly
improves children's word recognition, spelling and reading
comprehension , and its most effective when it begins in
kindergarten of first grade.
Diphthongs
- a phonetic sequence, consisting of a vowel and a
glide, that is interpreted as a single vowel. It is a combination
of sounds, each with 2 different spellings.
Ex:
1. /au/ as in Paul and /aw/ as in crawl
2. /ou/ as in mouse and /ow/ as in cow
3. /oi/ as in notice and /oy/ as in boy
A long and short /oo/ sound
Long /oo/ as in MOON
Short /oo/ as in BOOK
Consonants
 There are 44 sounds (19+25) that make up
the sounds of English language. 19 of the
sounds are vowel sounds because they use the
vowels a, e, I, o, u. 25 of the sounds are
consonant sounds.
• The letter c can be represented by the
phonemes /k/ or /s/ as in CENT
• The letter x as in fox can be represented by 2
phonemes /ks/
• The letter q can be represented by 2
phonemes /kw/
Ways Teachers Can Help Children Develop
Phonics Knowledge
1. Have faith in children as learners
2. Discuss interesting patterns of onsets and rimes
3. Engage children in, and or allow for, a limited
number of activities that reinforce their natural
learning of letter/sound relationships and patterns
4. Emphasize the use of letter/sound cues along
with prior knowledge and context
5. Foster the acquisition of phonics
knowledge indirectly, through various
means
6. Be alert for children’s idiosyncratic ways
of developing phonics knowledge
7. By providing additional materials and help
for individual children as appropriate.
VOCABULARY
DEVELOPMENT
 Three goals of
vocabulary instruction:
1. Provide students with skills/opportunities to
learn words independently
2. Teach students the meanings of specific
words
3. Nurture a love and appreciation of words
and their use
• Beginning readers should develop rich and
functional vocabulary. As learners begin to read,
reading vocabulary is mapped onto the oral
vocabulary the learner brings to the task.
• Learners must have the access to the meanings
of the words that teachers or their surrogates use
to guide them into contemplating known concepts
in novel ways – to learn.
• Vocabulary is very important to reading
comprehension.
• Readers cannot understand what they are reading
without knowing what most of the words mean.
 Examples of multiple-meaning
vocabulary words that can be difficult:
• Words that are spelled the same but are
pronounced differently – sow (a female pig);
sow(to plant seeds) bow (a knot of loops); bow
(the front of a ship)

• Words that are spelled and pronounced the same,

but have different meanings – mail (letters, cards,
and packages) mail (a type of armor) ray (a
narrow beam light); ray (a type of fish); ray (a part
of line)
 Learning Vocabulary
Words
• Pupils learn vocabulary directly when they
are explicitly taught both individual word
and word-learning strategies. Direct
vocabulary instruction aids reading
comprehension.
 Teaching Vocabulary Words
Directly
• Teaching specific words before helps both
vocabulary learning and reading
comprehension
• Extended instruction that promotes active
engagement with vocabulary improves word
learning.
• Repeated exposure to vocabulary in many
contexts aids word learning.
• Teaching specific words before
reading helps both vocabulary
learning and reading comprehension.
• Extended instruction that promotes
active engagement with vocabulary
improves learning.
• Repeated exposure to vocabulary in
many context aids word learning.
 Vocabulary Words
What words should you teach?
A teacher wont be able to teach all the vocabulary
words in a text that they might not know. In fact,
there are several reasons why you should not
directly teach all unknown words.

• The text may have a great many words that are

unknown to pupils-too many for direct instruction.
• Direct vocabulary instruction can take a lot of
time that you might better spend on having
children read.
• Children can understand most texts without
knowing the meaning of every word in the
text.
• Children read opportunities to use word-
learning strategies to learn on their own the
meanings of unknown words.
 To teach thoroughly, be able to teach only a
few new words (perhaps eight or ten) per week.
So you need to choose the words carefully.
Focus on teaching three types pf words:
1. Important vocabulary words – In teaching words
before pupils read a text, directly teach those words
that are important for understanding a concept or a
text.
2. Useful vocabulary words – Teach words that pupil
are likely to see and use again and again. For
example, it is probably more useful for students to
learn words fragment than the word fractal; likewise
the word revolve is more useful than the word gyrate.
3. Difficult vocabulary words – Words with multiple
meaning are particularly challenging for children.

Examples of multiple-meaning vocabulary words that can

be difficult:
• Words that are spelled the same but are pronounced
differently – sow (a female pig); sow(to plant seeds) bow (a
knot of loops); bow (the front of a ship)

• Words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have
different meanings – mail (letters, cards, and packages) mail
(a type of armor) ray (a narrow beam light); ray (a type of
fish); ray (a part of line)
 Vocabulary Builder
A good vocabulary builder is very important to
reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what
they are reading without knowing what most of the words
mean

Velocity is and effective and affordable vocabulary

builder. It is the only program that uses classical literature to
help children grade 2 to 10 build a complete, robust
vocabulary.
Using word parts
Word include affixes (prefixes and suffixes), based
words and word roots.

Affixes are word parts that are “fixed to” either

the beginning of words (prefixes) or the ending of
words (suffixes)

Based words are words from which many

other words are formed.
 Word roots are the words from other languages that
are the origin of many English words.

Workshop example – Using word parts:

A second-grade teacher wants to teach his/her pupils
how to use base word play as a way to help them think about
the meanings of new words they will encounter in reading. To
begin, he/she makes pupils brainstorm all the words or
phrases they can think of that they are related to play. The
teacher records their suggestions: player, playful, playpen,
ballplayer, and playing field. Then he/she let the class discuss
the meaning of each of their proposed words and how it
relates to play.
 Why is vocabulary
important ?
According to research,(Pearson, 1998), the
importance of vocabulary knowledge to school success in
general, and reading comprehension, in particular, is widely
documented. It was concluded that vocabulary development
is a fundamental goal for learners in the early grades.
Children enter school with meaningful differences, in
vocabulary knowledge. What doesn't matter, race/ethnicity,
gender, birth order. What does matter: relative economic
advantage
 Critical features of
vocabulary Instruction
The figure illustrates that learning, as a language based activity, is
fundamentally and profoundly dependent on vocabulary knowledge.
Learners must have access to the meanings of words that teachers,
(their parents, books, films, and the like), use to guide then into
contemplating known concepts to learn something new.
The teacher may use story books in teaching vocabulary,
identify words that are critical to story understanding that are not
explained in the text, then provide learners an opportunity to use the
words. In the next vocabulary lessons, the teacher may use the
computer technology in presenting vocabulary lessons.

Vocabulary instruction in grade school is informed by two distinct

literatures. 1.) Vocabulary literature
2.) Storybook literature
Three goals of vocabulary
instruction:
1. Provide students with skills/opportunities to learn
words independently
2. Teach students the meanings of specific words
3. Nurture a love and appreciation of words and their
use
Vocabulary Literature
1. Contextual analysis – a strategy
that records to use to infer or predict
a word from the context in which it
appears.
2. Morphemic analysis – a strategy in
which the meanings of words can be
determined or inferred by examining
their meaningful parts – prefixes,
suffixes, roots.
 Storybook Literature
Pupils learn new vocabulary from oral language
experiences like listening to storybooks (Robbin & Ehri,
1994). The relative rarity of words in children’s books is
in fact greater than that in all adult conversation
testimony.

The words used in children’s books are

considerably rarer than those in the speech on prime
time adult television (Allington and Cunningham,
2009). They recommended that:
1. The primary focus of instruction in grade 3
should be on developing critical reading
skills.

2. It is important to read storybooks to younger

children to develop vocabulary, and

3. There is a necessity to teach older pupils

strategies for contextual analysis and
morphemic analysis.
Types of Vocabulary
1. Structural analysis – a process of decoding unfamiliar
words by visually examining the words to discover
component parts which lead to pronunciation and
meaning. One who uses a structural analysis must be able
to recognize the root word or base word.
Inflectional endings (-s, -ed, -ing)
Affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
Compound words (pillbox, underground, highway,
makeup)

2. Context clues - discovering the meaning of unknown

words. Context clues include:
a. Semantic clues
b. Syntactic clues
c. Presentation clues
 Semantic clues are clues derived from the meaning of words co-
occurring with the unknown word. The following are kinds of semantic
clues.
a. Definition clues
b. Appositive clues
c. Comparison or contrast clues
d. Explanation clues

Syntactic clues are contained in the grammar of our language.

These help the reader discover that the word is a noun, an action, or a
verb.
Example: Ogle ogled oggledly.

Presentation clues – refer to the other aids that the author may use
to make himself clear.
Examples:
1. Use of footnotes
2. Use of boldface
3. Use of visuals
4. Organization devices
 Using context clues
Context clues are hints about the meaning of an
unknown word that is provided in the words, phrases,
and sentences that surround the word. Context clues
include definitions, restatements, examples, or
descriptions.
A number of possible meanings of buoyant could
fit this context, including heavy, lively, noisy, familiar,
dragging, plodding, and so on. Instruction in using
context clues as a word-learning strategy should include
the idea that some contexts are more helpful than
others.
Workshop example – Using context clues
In third-grade class, the teacher models how to use
context clues to determine word meanings as follows:

Pupil (reading the text): when the cat pounced on the

dog, the dog jumped yelping, and knocked over a lamp, which
crashed to the door.
Teacher: The context of the paragraph helps us
determine what commotion means. There’s yelping and
crashing, snobbing, and yelling. And then the last sentence
says, “as the noise and confusion mounted.” The authors
words noise and confusion gives us very strong clue as to
what commotion means.
 Vocabulary is very important to reading
comprehension. Readers cannot understand what
they are reading without knowing what most of the
words mean

Expressive Vocabulary – requires a pupil to

produce specific label for a particular meaning.
Receptive vocabulary requires a reader to associate
a specific meaning with a given label as in reading
or listening.
Word Associations
1. Similarity road – street, path,
highway
2. Contrast happy – sad
3. Assonance site – cite, sight,
scythe
4. Subordination animal – lion, tiger
5. Derivation friend – friendship
6. Prediction bird – fly, eat, drink
 Homonyms
Word that sound alike but have different spellings
and meanings are called homonyms. Words that are
spelled the same but have different meanings are called
homographs. Other that don’t sound the same are called
heteronyms.

Examples: to – two way - weight

 Types of Vocabulary Instruction
• Direct instruction that teaches specific vocabulary to
be read
• Pre-instruction pf vocabulary in reading lesson
• Multiple exposures
• Task restricting
• Active engagement
• Computer technology
• Incidental learning through reading
• Multiple methods versus single methods
• Use of context to learn unfamiliar word meanings
 Simplifying direct vocabulary Instruction:
matching instruction to your goal

• There are limited number of ways to

teach vocabulary directly.

• The way you teach depends on learner

knowledge and what you want learners
to be able to do.
Three prominent oral vocabulary
teaching strategies
Modelling (Examples):
When it is impossible to use language to explain the
meaning of a word (e.g., between, in).
Synonyms :
When a pupil knows a word(s) what can explain the
meaning of a new, unknown word (e.g damp means a little
wet).
Definitions:
When pupils have adequate language to understand a
longer explanation and when the concept is too complicated
to be explained through a synonym (e.g., service station is a
place where gasoline is sold and cars are repaired).
 The way you teach vocabulary
depends on your goal

Kindergarten Standard: Identify Common Words and

Sort in Basic Categories (colors, shapes, foods)

Other examples of categories: animals, position word,

clothing.

Use concept teaching (modelling) when children have

limited language and explanations contain words children
do not understand.
Features of concept
teaching (modelling)
• Set up (use the same material and vary only
the dimension that changes it from the
concept to not the concept)
• Show range of positive and negative
examples
• Include negative examples that minimally
different
• Keep language consistent
Modelling
1. Model positive and negative examples of the
new concept. (e.g., “This is a mitten.” or “This
is not a mitten.”).
2. Test pupils on their mastery of the examples
(e.g., “Is this a mitten or not a mitten?”).
3. Present different examples of the new word
along with examples of other previously
taught words. Ask for names (e.g., “What is
this?” , ”What color is this?” or “Tell me how
I’m writing.”)
Examples of Content
Teaching
Synonyms
1. Teacher equates a new word (huge) with a known
word(s) (very big). (e.g., “here is a new word. Sturdy.
Sturdy means strong”.)

2. Teacher tests a set of positive and negative

examples for the new word. (e.g., “Tell me sturdy or
not sturdy.”)

3. Teacher provides practice in applying several taught

synonyms. (e.g., “Is that sturdy? Is it tidy? Is it
mild?”)
When teaching is
synonyms
• Use words pupils know.
• Test on range of positive and negative
examples.
Huge means very big.
What does huge mean?
Tom put his pet in his pocket. Was his pet
huge?
The animal wouldn’t fit through the door. Was
the animal huge?
Definitions
1. Teacher tells the pupils the definition
and let them repeat it.
2. Teacher test the pupils on positive and
negative examples to ensure that the
pupils understand the definition and
that they are not just memorizing a
series of words.
3. Teacher provides a review of previous
words.
1. What are the vowel phonics patterns? Explain the concept.
2. Draw a chart of the vowel phonemes.
3. What are the approaches that a teacher may use in teaching
phonics?
4. Before teaching phonics to children, what should the teacher ask
herself/ himself first?
5. What do you mean with this statement, “ Vocabulary can be
taught directly? Explain.
6. Give the types of vocabulary. Define each.
7. What are the kinds of word association? Give at least three
examples foe each of them.

8th Take – Home Comprehension Check

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My Insights
 READING FLUENCY
The ability to read a text accurately
and quickly
WHY READ?
• Children must learn to read words
rapidly and accurately in order for
them to understand what they
read.
• FLUENT READERS – read aloud,
effortlessly and with expressions.
• WEAK READERS – read slowly, word by
word basis, focuses on decoding instead of
comprehending meaning.
• Fluency should be the aim of every reading and
writing lesson.
• It should increase the learners progress from
beginning to advanced readers and writers.
• Fluency enables learners to read and write with
more understanding and they gain this skills
through practice and observations.

According to Allington and

Cunningham, 2009
• FLUENCY SKILLS – the ability to see larger segment and
phrases as whole as an aid to reading and writing more
quickly.
• Examples of fluency skills:
1. Immediately recognizing letters and frequent clusters of
letters.
2. Learning frequent words by sight.
3. Seeing phrases as wholes.
4. Using prediction skills within the phrase or clause.
• Examples:
• “At the d..”
• ”Under the b…’’
• ”Black and w..”
• ”The book that I r…”
• FLUENCY WITH TEXT- the effortless,
automatic ability to read words in connected
text.
• FLUENCY – the ability to translate letter-to-
sounds-to-words fluently and effortlessly.
 According to LaBerge
and Samuels (1974)
• Fluent readers is describes as “one whose
decoding processes are automatic, requiring no
conscious attention”.
• Such capacity enables readers to allocate their
attention to the comprehension and meaning of
the text.
• FLUENCY AUTOMACITY
– reading words with no noticeable
cognitive or mental effort.
- a mastery of word recognition skills to
the point of overlearning.
- fundamental skills are automatic that
they do not require conscious
attention.
• HOW TO DETERMINE
APPROPRIATE LEVEL TEXT
Example: Number of words read correctly = % accuracy
Total words read

Number of words read correctly 80%= % accuracy

125 words read
According to Hasbrouck,1998 :
80% accuracy would not be appropriate for fluency building
• LEVELS OF CHALLENGE

* Independent level – 97%

* Instructional level – 94 – 96.99%
* Frustration level – 93.99 or lower
Teaching Fluency: Critical
Features Of Fluency Instruction
• *Reading fluency rest on decoding skill; to the
extent that decoding is dependent on phoneme
awareness, the line fluency is obvious.

*Fluency rest directly on decoding skills which in

turn rests directly in phoneme awareness

*It is decoding ability that is completely independent

of any issues of word recognition.
• Hence, there is a need to give the child
reading activities in relative brief sessions.
The teacher should know the level of each
pupil to be able to provide him/her an
appropriate reading materials.
• EFFECTIVE FLUENCY BUILDING INSTRUCTION
REST ON 3 CRITICAL DECISIONS:

1. Selecting appropriate instructional tasks (i.e. letter

sounds pupils can produce accurately but not fluently).

2. Scheduling sufficient practice (multiple opportunities

per day).

3. Systematically increasing the rate of response.

Comprehension
- Is the complex cognitive process involving the
intentional interaction between reader and text to
convey meaning.
- It is the essence of reading; active and intentional
thinking in which the meaning is constructed
through between the text and the reader
- The context of meaning is influenced by the text
and by the contribution of the reader’s prior
knowledge. (Pearson 1998)

Comprehension
 Critical Features of
Comprehension Instruction
Who is the What is her How does the
major attitude video clip
character of toward move you as a
the story? reading reader?
compared to
her parents?
What do her How did she What instances
parents like to learn to like motivate the
do very much? readings? character to
read?

Guide Questions
First Level

Readers find meaning is found DIRECTLY in the text: you can

literally put a finger in the reading and POINT TO THE
ANSWER.

Answers questions “Who?”, “What?”, “When?”,

and “Where?”

Levels of Reading Comprehension

Second Level

Readers INTERPRET what is in the text.

Readers REASON, COMPARE, & CONTRAST,
CLASSIFY, ANALYZE.
Readers look for what passages REPRESENT or
SUGGEST.
The exact answer CANNOT be found directly in the
text: the answer is “between the lines”.
Key questions include “How?”, and “Why?”
Levels of Reading Comprehension
Third Level

The third level is SUPER abstract.

The answers are found beyond the lines.
Readers move beyond the text to connect to UNIVERSAL
MEANING.
Key questions include “Why is this important?” “How
does this text connect with my life? With all human
beings?”
Readers move BEYOND THE “WHAT?” to the “SO
WHAT?”
Levels of Reading Comprehension
Level One: Literal

Level Two: Inferential

Level Three: Evaluative

Levels of Reading Comprehension

Comprehension Strategies
for Proficient Readers

Consist of…
• An awareness and understanding of one’s own
cognitive processes
• Recognition of when one doesn’t understand
• Coordination and shifting the use of strategies as
needed
 Types of Comprehension
Instruction that have Evidence of
Improving Comprehension
• Comprehension monitoring
• Cooperative learning
• Multiple strategies
• Mental imagery/mnemonics
• Graphic organizers
• Summarization
• Semantic organizers including:
• Story maps
• Question answering
• Question generation
 Teaching comprehension before,
during and after reading
Before Reading
• Set comprehension objectives.
• Preview test and prime background knowledge.
• Chunk text into manageable segments.
During Reading
• Identify text structure elements.
• Answer literal, inferential, and evaluative questions.
• Retell stories or main ideas of informational text.
After Reading
• Strategic integration
• Judicious review
• Formal and Informal Assessment

• Suggested Output for Developmental Reading:

An Action Plan for Reading Enrichment and Reading
Remedial Sessions

Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Hhnbr7D0n0
• Read a journal entitled, “Reading interventions
for struggling readers in the upper elementary
grades: A synthesis of 20 years of research
• Write a Critical Reflection Paper on the varied
studies pertaining to reading intervention
programs for struggling readers
• The Critical Reflection Paper rubric is attached in
the google classroom folder
• Submit the Final output on or before May 8, 2022

Developmental Reading
Final Output https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC2975107/
I. Introduction
- Overview of the study
- Thesis Statement ( topic + opinion/ revelation about the
topic)
II. Body Paragraph #1, #2, #3
- Striking Idea
- explain/ elaborate
- provide an example
III. Conclusion
- Restate thesis statement
- Write its significance to you as a reading teacher
- Cite your personal stand on the study which include
findings, suggestions, recommendations

/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
Developmental Reading articles/PMC2975107/

Final Output
 Teaching Comprehension
before reading:

Setting Comprehension Objectives

- refer to instructional priorities on grade-level
curricular maps.
Examples:
• Accurately answer literal and inferential questions.
• Identify the main character and setting.
Pre-teach difficult to read words
• Identify words that will be barriers to pupils’ independent
reading.
• Use familiar procedures to teach or review difficult-to-
decode words:
o Sounding out
o Structural Analysis
Previewing text and Priming Background Knowledge
• Teach pupils to preview the text and predict what the text
is going to be about before reading a passage.
• After previewing, teach pupils to think about what they
already know and what they’d like to learn about the story
or topic.
Use Conspicuous Strategies
– Teacher actions should model how we preview a
story or informational text using a “think aloud”
procedure.
Example: Look at the title, look at the pictures or
diagrams, survey headings.
– Teacher actions should model how to predict what
the story or informational text is going to be about.
Examples: “I think this story is going to be about a
mouse named Stuart Little and his life.”
Teaching Comprehension During
Reading:
Identifying Text Structure Elements
How to teach text structure elements: Design Considerations
A Simple Story Map
Grade 1 Who?
Example What?
When?
Where?
Why?
 Story blocks for:
Setting

Characters

Problem(s)
Grades 2-3
Example
Solution

Theme
Teaching Comprehension
After Reading:
Strategic Integration
Teaching Text Structure
• Once pupils learn to accurately identify a text
structure element, integrate it with previously
learned elements.
• Integrate text structure elements into new stories
and expository texts.
• Use text structure in developing literal, inferential,
and evaluative comprehension questions.
Teaching Literal, Inferential, and Evaluative
Question Answering
• Once pupils can consistently respond to literal
questions, include simple inferential questions.
• Increase the complexity of inferential questions
gradually as pupils demonstrate success.
• Integrate evaluative questions throughout story
reading and independent passage reading.
• Integrate literal, inferential, and evaluative
questions with questions about text structure.
Teaching Retelling
• Once pupils learn to retell paragraphs, provide
opportunities for retelling chapters and complete
stories orally and in writing.
• Once pupils learn to summarize the main ideas in
expository texts provide opportunities to
summarize in other context, such as reading
directions, content area textbooks, mathematics
problems, and school news.
 Factors that impact reading
comprehension
Reader-based factors 7. Narrative & expository
1. Phonemic awareness 8. Genre considerations
2. Alphabetic understanding 9. Quality of text
3. Fluency with the code 10. Density and difficulty of
4. Vocabulary knowledge concepts
5. Prior knowledge
6. Engagement and interest

Text-based factors
 Why is comprehension
important?
Research on Reading tells:
1. Readers who comprehend well are also good decoders.
– Teach decoding and word recognition strategies.
2. Time spent in reading is highly correlated with
comprehension.
– Provide lots of in-class reading, outside class reading,
independent reading.
– Encourage kids to read more, read widely-develop a passion for
reading.
 Causes of reading
comprehension failure
1. Inadequate instruction
2. Insufficient exposure and practice
3. Deficient word recognition skills
4. Deficient memory capacity and functioning
5. Significant language deficiencies
6. Inadequate comprehension monitoring and
self-evaluation
7. Unfamiliarity with text features and tasks demands
8. Undeveloped attention strategies
9. Inadequate to cognitive development

How to improve Reading Comprehension

• Good reading means building frameworks for
connecting words to thoughts. The purpose of reading
is to connect the ideas on the page to what you
already know. If you don’t know anything about a
subject, then pouring words of text into your mind is
like pouring water into your hand. You don’t retain
much.
 Comprehension Strategies in
the Primary Grades
1. Making Connections
2. Questioning
3. Visualizing
4. Inferring
5. Determination Importance
6. Synthesizing
 Making connections
There are three main types of connections:
1. Text-to-self (T-S) – refers to connections made
between the text and the reader’s personal
experience.
2. Text-to-text (T-T) – refers to connections made
between a text being read to a text that was
previously read.
3. Text-to-world (T-W) – refers to connections
made between a text being read and something
that occurs in the world.
• Code for questioning – vary according to different
authors and books on comprehension strategies.
• Questioning – is a critical strategy that helps
readers make meaning of literature by promoting
critical thinking about what is being read.
- questioning occurs as a natural part of
the classroom routine as teachers encourage pupils
to pose, discuss, and answer questions.
- questions can be generated by the
reader, a peer, the teacher, or curriculum developers.
 Four types of Question
1. “Right there” questions – these are literal questions
where the answer is in the text itself.
2. “Think and search” questions – the answer is implicit in
the text but the pupil must synthesize, infer, or summarize
to find the answer.
3. “Reader and author” questions – the reader has to
combine his/her own experiences with what the text states.
4. “On my own” questions – the reader needs to generate
the answer from his/her prior knowledge.
 Questioning Strategies
before Reading

• Elicit prior knowledge related to the core ideas of

the story.
• Make connections between what they know and
the subject or theme of the book.
• Set a purpose for reading.
• Construct predictions.
Research-based strategies for
questioning before reading.
• KWL (Know, Want, Learn)
– Is intended to be an exercise for a study group/class that
can guide you in reading and understanding a text.
o K stands for Know – the first stage. Think first about
what you know about the topic then list.
o W stands for Will/Want – is to list a series of questions
of what you want to know more of the subject, based
upon what you listed in K.
o L stands for Learn – is to answer your question, as
well as to list what new information you have learned.
 Questioning strategies During
Reading

1. Clarify and review what has happened so far.

2. Confirm or create new predictions.
3. Evaluate the story critically and make personal
connections.
4. Compare with other experiences or books.
5. Monitor reading for meaning and accuracy.
 Strategies to use during
reading
1. Story Grammar Mapping – pupils create a story map
and then refer to the map to answer pupil/teacher
questions.
2. Questioning the Author – as pupils read, they develop
questions for the author about the author’s intent for the
selection and his /her success at communicating it.
3. Learning logs – pupils record their questions about the
text in a notebook, journal, or by using sticky notes.
Pupils write their reactions during and after reading a
text.
4. Double Entry Journal – before reading the text, pupils
write down their questions in the left-hand page/column.
After reading, they answer the questions in the right-hand
column.
5. Guide Questions – are teacher-constructed questions that
help pupils focus on essentials of the text to be read.
6. Think-Aloud – is to capture the pupil’s thinking about the
text during the process.
7. Self-Questioning - using the title of the text and the
pictures, pupils generate questions. They ask questions
before they start to read and then stop at different section s
of the story to answer their questions and ask new ones.
8. Think-Pair-Share – pupils are given a question.
They think about the answer individually, in pair,
and then in small group to reach a consensus.
9. Literature Circles – pupils participate in open-
ended discussion in small self-selected groups.
Teachers guide pupils toward insights or
interpretations particularly suited to the text.
 Questioning strategies after
reading
• Reinforce the concept that reading is for understanding
the meaning of the text and making connections.
• Model ways of thinking through and organizing the
information taken in from reading a text.
• Think critically.
• Respond on a personal level.
• Build awareness of common themes and structures in
literature.
 Questioning strategies to
use after reading
1. Journal Writing – on regular basis, pupils record their
questions, comments, reflections, and reactions in a
journal.
2. Teacher Question – the teacher leads large and
small group discussions using various sample
questions guides.
3. Literature Circles - pupils participate in open-ended
discussion in small self-selected groups. Teachers
guide pupils toward insights or interpretations
particularly suited to the text.
4. Large Group Discussions – the teacher leads a class
discussion with a set of prepared questions.
5. ORQ-Observe, Ruminate, Question – pupils make an
observation based on the reading and then they
ruminate or extend it. They end with a final question.
6. Impersonations – pupils write in the role of a character
and ask questions od another character using email.
7. Quick Write – pupils write ideas, feelings, and
questions after reading.
8. Questioning the Author - as pupils read, they develop
questions for the author about the author’s intent for the
selection and his /her success at communicating it.
• One format uses these questions:
o Why is the author telling you that?
o Does the author say it clearly?
o How could the author have said things more clearly?
o What would you say instead?
• Visualizing
o Mental pictures are the cinema unfolding in your mind
that make reading three-dimensional.
o Visualization helps readers engage with text in ways that
make it personal and memorable.
o Readers adapt their images as they continue to read.
• Inferring – usually referred to as “reading between the lines.”
This strategy usually involves:
o Forming a best guess using evidence – context clues,
picture clues, etc.
o Making predictions.
o Drawing conclusions.
o Finding meaning of unknown words.
• Determining importance – people are bombarded daily with
information. Knowing the purpose for reading helps
determine what’s important. Readers need to distinguished
between:
o Fiction and non-fiction
o Important from unimportant information
• Synthesizing – thinking evolves through a
process. Reader’s thinking changes as they gather
more information. New information makes the
reader re-evaluate their schema to form new
schema.