Ultrasonic Testing

Part 3
The Phenomenon of Sound

REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
 Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o
Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident

Transmitted

The sound is refracted due to differences in

sound velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°

30°

Water Steel Water

Steel Steel Steel

Refracted
 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different
VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted
 Snell’s Law
Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R

Sine I Vel in Material 1


Sine R Vel in Material 2
 Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two
different materials:
REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear

When a waveform changes

into another waveform:
C MODE CHANGE
C
SS
 Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at
Perspex 90° from the Normal

C
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

SC
CS
S
 1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted
at 90 degrees

33

S
 1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730

Sine 90 5960
Perspex Sin90  1
C
Steel 2730
SinI 
5960
S SinI  0.458
I  27.26
 Snell’s Law
• Calculate the 1st critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec

2730
SinI   0.5808  35.5
4700
 2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57

S (Surface Wave)
90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees

Shear wave becomes a surface wave

 2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4 
Sine 90 3240
Perspex Sin90  1
S
Steel 2730
SinI 
3240
SinI  0.8425
I  57.4
 Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1

Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 20 2730

Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580  0.4580
C
 Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15 
Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex Sine 15 2730


Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR  Sin15
2730
C
SinR  0.565
R  34.4
 Snell’s Law
C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S
 Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There
1st. are both Compression and Shear
wave in the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
2nd. Compression wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the
material

90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.

Beyond the 2nd. Critical Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Angle: All waves are wave in the material.
reflected out of the Compression is reflected out
material. NO wave in of the material.
the material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear
is refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave
 Summary
• Standard angle probes between 1st and
2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
• Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
• No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material. One Defect Two Echoes

C S

S
 Sound Generation
• Hammers (Wheel tapers)
• Magnetostrictive
• Lasers
• Piezo-electric

magnetostrictive
 Piezo-Electric Effect
• When exposed to an alternating current a
crystal expands and contracts
• Converting electrical energy into mechanical

- + + - - +
 Piezo-Electric Materials
QUARTZ LITHIUM SULPHATE
• Resistant to wear • Efficient receiver
• Insoluble in water • Low electrical
• Resists ageing impedance
• Inefficient converter of • Operates on low voltage
energy • Water soluble
• Needs a relatively high • Low mechanical
voltage strength
Very rarely used nowadays • Useable only up to 30ºC
Used mainly in medical
 Polarized Crystals

• Powders heated to Examples

high temperatures • Barium titanate (Ba Ti O3)
• Pressed into shape • Lead metaniobate
• Cooled in very (Pb Nb O6)
strong electrical
• Lead zirconate titanate
fields
(Pb Ti O3 or Pb Zr O3)

Most of the probes for conventional usage use

PZT : Lead Zirconate Titanate

Probes
 Z
Probes
• The most important part of the
probe is the crystal
• The crystal are cut to a
X
particular way and thickness to
give the intended properties
• Most of the conventional crystal
are X – cut to produce
Y
Compression wave

X X
 Probes
• The frequency of the probe depends on
the THICKNESS of the crystal
• Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t
Where Ff = the Fundamental frequency
V = the velocity in the crystal
t = the thickness of the crystal
Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal )
where at that frequency the material will vibrate.
 Probes
• The Thinner the crystal the Higher the frequency
• Which of the followings has the Thinnest crystal ?
1 MHz Compression probe
5 MHz Compression probe
10 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear probe

25 MHz Shear
Probe
 Probe Design
• Compression Probe Electrical
– Normal probe connectors
– 0°

Housing
Damping
Transducer
 Probe Design
• Shear Probe
– Angle probe

Backing
medium
Damping
Transducer

Probe
Shoe

Perspex wedge
 Probe Design
Advantages
Twin Crystal • Can be focused
Transmitter Receiver • Measure thin plate
• Near surface
resolution
Disadvantages
• Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
• Sizing small defects
• Signal amplitude /
Separator / Focusing
lens focal spot length
Insulator
 Ultrasonic Displays
• A-Scan
• B-Scan End View
• C-Scan Plan View
• D-Scan Side View

• P-Scan or “projection scan” collects and

combines A, B, C & D Scan information
 Ultrasonic Displays
• A scan
The CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display
The Horizontal axis :
Represents time base / beam path length /
distance / depth
The Vertical axis :
Represent the amount of sound energy
returned to the crystal
 Ultrasonic Displays
• B scan
The End View Display

B
 Ultrasonic Displays
• C scan
The Plan View Display

C
 Ultrasonic Displays
• D scan
The Side View Display

D
 Ultrasonic Test Methods

• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
(pulse echo techniques where the transmitter is
separate from the receiver - e.g. tandem testing, time
of flight)
 Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends
and receives sound
• Gives an indication of
defect depth and
dimensions
 Defect Orientation
ONLY DEFECTS HAVING A SUITABLY ORIENTATED
REFLECTING SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED BY PULSE
ECHO METHODS!!

Orientation favourable, Orientation unfavourable,

sound reflected back to sound not reflected back
point of origin to point of origin
Through Transmission Testing
• Transmitting and receiving probes on
opposite sides of the specimen
• Pulsed or Continuous sound
• Presence of defect indicated by
reduction in transmission signal
• No indication of defect location
• Easily automated
• Commonly integrated into plate rolling
mills - lamination testing
 Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes
on opposite sides
of the specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal

No indication of
defect location
Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects
matter don’t show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
 Transmission with Reflection
T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
Transmission with
Reflection
T R

TANDEM TESTING
Transmission with Reflection
T R

TANDEM TESTING
 Automated Inspections
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection

• Contact scanning
• Gap scanning
• Immersion testing
 Gap Scanning
• Probe held a fixed
distance above the
surface (1 or 2mm)
• Couplant is fed into
the gap
 Immersion Testing
• Component is placed in a water filled
tank
• Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed
distance above the surface
Immersion Testing
 Immersion Testing

Water
path
distance

Front surface Back surface

Defect

Water path distance