Basics of Network

Unit 1
 What is network?
• A Networking is a collection of computers and devices(printer,
scanners) connected together via communication
devices(hub, router) and transmission media.(infrared,
satellite)
• For example it may connect computers, printers and scanners.
• In other word, A network consists of two or more computers
that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers
and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared.
• The first Computer Network is ARPANET.
• ARPANET = Advanced Research Project Agency Network
 Characteristics of Computer Network
• Resource Sharing
• Communication System
• Back Up
• Scalability
• Reliability
• S/w and H/w sharing
• Security
 Communication
• Communication describe a process in which
two or more computer or devices transfer
data, instruction and information.
 Importance/ Advantage of Computer
Network
• Sharing of devices such as printer and scanner.
• Sharing of program/ software.
• Sharing of files.
• Sharing of data.
• Sharing of information.
• Sharing of single high-speed internet connection.
• Can access server centered database.
• Better communication using internet services such
as email, mailing list and Internet Relate Chat(IRC).
 Uses Of Network
• The computer networks are playing an
important role in providing services to large
organizations as well as to the individual
common MAN.
• People around the world use computer
networks every day in business, at office and
home etc.
 Service Provided by the Network for
Companies:
• Many organizations have a large number of computers in
operation. These computers may be within the same building,
campus, city or different cities.
• Even though the computers are located in different locations,
the organizations want to keep track of inventories, monitor
productivity, do the ordering and billing etc.
• The computer networks are useful to the organizations in the
following ways:
1. Resource sharing.
2. For providing high reliability.
3. To save money.
4. It can provide a powerful communication medium.
 Resource Sharing
• It allows all programs, equipments and data
available to anyone on the network
irrespective of the physical location of the
resource and the user.
 High reliability due to alternative sources
of data
• It provides high reliability by having alternative
sources of data. For e.g. all files could be replicated
on more than one machines, so if one of them is
unavailable due to hardware failure or any other
reason, the other copies can be used.
• The aspect of high reliability is very important for
military, banking, air traffic control, nuclear reactor
safety and many other applications where
continuous operations is a must even if there are
hardware or software failures.
 Money saving
• Computer networking is an important financial aspect for organizations
because it saves money.
• Organizations can use separate personal computer one per user instead of
using mainframe computer which are expensive.
• The organizations can use the workgroup model (peer to peer) in which all
the PCs are networked together and each one can have the access to the
other for communicating or sharing purpose.
• The organization, if it wants security for its operation it can go in for the
domain model in which there is a server and clients. All the clients can
communicate and access data through the server.
• The whole arrangement is called as client -server model.
• Client: The individual workstations in the network are called as clients.
• Server
• The central computer which is more powerful than the clients and which
allows the clients to access its software and database is called as the server .
• Server computers typically are more powerful than client computers or are
 Communication medium
• A computer network provides a powerful communication medium
among widely separated employees.
• • Using network it is easy for two or more employees, who are
separated by geographical locations to work on a report, document or
R and D simultaneously i.e. on -line.
• Networks for People:
• • Starting in 1990s, the computer networks began to start delivering
services to the private individuals at home.
• • The computer networks offer the following services to an individual
person:
• 1. Access to remote information
• 2. Person to person communication
• 3. Interactive entertainment.
 Access to remote information
• Access to remote information involves interaction·
between a person and a remote database. Access to
remote information comes in many forms like:
• (i) Home shopping, paying telephone, electricity bills, e-
banking, on line share market etc.
• (ii) Newspaper On-line and is personalized, digital library
consisting of books, magazines, scientific journals etc.
• (iii) World wide web which contains information. about
the arts, business, cooking, government, health, history,
hobbies, recreation, science, sports etc.
 Interactive entertainment
• Interactive entertainment includes:
• (i) Multiperson real-time simulation games.
• (ii) Video on demand.
• (iii) Participation in live TV programmes likes
quiz, contest, discussions etc.
• In short, the ability to merge information,
communication and entertainment will surely
give rise to a massive new industry based on
computer networking.
 Person to person communication
• Person to person communication includes:
• (i) Electronic-mail (e-mail)
• (ii) Real time e-mail i.e. video conferencing allows
remote users to communicate with no delay by seeing
and hearing each other. Video-conferencing is being
used for remote school, getting medical opinion from
distant specialists etc.
• (iii) Worldwide newsgroups in which one person posts
a message and all other subscribers to the newsgroup
can read it or give their feedbacks.
 Network Model
• Network Architecture means Network Layout
that tells us how computers are arranged and
how task are allocated to the computer.
• It is also known as network architecture or
network design.
• There are two main network model :
– Peer-to-peer network
– Client /server network
 Peer to Peer Network
• Peer-to-peer network also known as point to point network in
which all the computers are directly linked together with equal
privileges and responsibilities for sharing the data.
• There is no master or controller or central server in this computer
network to share files, printers and Internet access.
• In this model, each PC acts as an independent workstation and
maintaining its own security .
• It stores data on its own disk but which can share it with all other
PCs on the network.
• Peer to peer relationship is suitable for small networks having
less than 10 computers on a single LAN.
• In a peer to peer network each computer can not act as both a
server and a client.
 Advantages
• It is a cheaper network, as it has no server.
• If one computer stops working it will have no
effect on the other computer.
• Its setup and maintenance is also easy.
 Disadvantage
• In peer-to-peer network, the absence of
centralized server make it difficult to backup
data as data is located on different
workstations.
• Security is weak as each system manages itself
only.
 Client/server Model
• Client-Server architecture also known as request-
response architecture.
• In this architecture client makes a request to the server,
and server will fulfil the response.
• In such networks, there exists a central controller called
server. A server is a specialized computer that controls
the network resources and provides services to other
computers in the network.
• All other computers in the network are called clients. A
client computer receives the requested services from a
server.
• A server performs all the major operations like security
and network management.
• All the clients communicate with each other via
centralized server
• If client 1 wants to send data to client 2, it first sends
request to server to seek permission for it. The server
then sends a signal to client 1 allowing it to initiate the
communication.
• A server is also responsible for managing all the
network resources such as files, directories, applications
& shared devices like printer etc.
• If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first
seeks permission from the server by sending a request.
 Advantages
• It has a centralized system from which data
can be easily backed up.
• Security is better in this network.
• Entire system is maintained by the server.
• It also increases the speed of resource sharing.
 Disadvantages
• In case of server failure entire network will be
failed.
• Server maintenance cost is high.
 Network Services
• Network services are basic reason that we connect
computers.
• Basically 6 network services are available and that
are listed below:
– File Service
– Print Service
– Communication Service
– Database Service
– Security Service
– Application Service
 File Service
• File service enables network computers to
share the files with one another.
• This includes sending files to the computers or
receiving files from the computers.
• File service enables user to read, write and
manage files and data.
 Print Service
• Print service is useful for taking printouts from
any computers in the network.
• Following are the advantages of print service :
– Many users can share the same printer.
– Printers can be located any where not just next to
the user’s PC.
 Communication Service
• This service is used generally to transfer information from
one place to another.
• This communication of information can be taken into 3
different parts:
– E-mail : By installing e-mail routing device, you can transfer
mail smoothly and efficiently among several LANs.
– Voice mail: Voice mail enables you to connect your computer
to a telephone and to incorporate telephone voice mail
message to your computer.
– Fax: Fax enables you to send or receive fax to your fax
machine. You just remember the fax number of the fax device.
 Database service
• This service is the most common type of
network service.
• In this service database servers are used to
store and retrieve the data.
• Dedicated servers are used to manage the
data.
• The modern database servers provide
database security and proper storage capasity.
 Security Service
• This service is one of the important element of
the network service.
• Security service often deals with user account
database.
• Security service is interconnected with all the
network services.
 Application Service
• This service enables to reduce the cost and
provide specialized facility of other computers
on a network.
• Application server is an effective storage for
making a network more scalable.
• If more power is necessary for an application
only the application server needs to be
upgraded.
 Network Access Method
• An access method is a set of rule governing how the network
nodes share the transmission medium.
• The system breaks down when two computers attempt to
transmit data at the same time in which case a collision
occurs.
• One mechanism is “carrier sensing” where each computer
listen to the network before attempt to transmit the data.
• Another mechanism is “carrier detection” with this strategy
computer continue to listen to the networks as they transmit.
• If computer detects any other signals that interfere with
signal. It is sending, it stops transmission.
 CSMA/CD
• CAMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection.
• In CSMA/CD Access Method, every host has equal access to the wire
and can place data on the wire when the wire is free from traffic.
• When a host want to place data on the wire, it will “sense” the wire to
find whether there is a signal already on the wire.
• If there is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there is
no traffic, it will place the data in the medium.
• But, if two systems place data on the medium at the same instance,
they will collide with each other, destroying the data.
• If the data is destroyed during transmission, the data will need to be
retransmitted.
• After collision, each host will wait for a small interval of time and again
the data will be retransmitted, to avoid collision again.
 CSMA/CA
• CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision
Avoidance.
• It uses the additional technique to further reduce the collision.
• In this method, Each computer signals a warning that says it is
about to transmit data, so other computer waits for the
broadcast.
• In CSMA/CA, before a host sends real data on the wire it will
“sense” the wire to check if the wire is free.
• If the wire is free, it will send a piece of “dummy” data on the
wire to see whether it collides with any other data.
• If it does not collide, the host will assume that the real data also
will not collide.
 Polling
• Polling based system requires a device called controller.
• Polling is a method of controlling the access to a transmission medium which is shared
by a number of stations.
• A station is a user requesting service.
• Polling techniques have been widely used in inquiry - response networks.
• In polling networks, a controller is required to either initiate or to carry out the polling.
• This technique is not very much useful because polling.
• Messages arriving at each station are first packetized, and then stored in the transmit
buffer, where they wait for the poll.
• As each station is polled, those stations with packets to transmit can use the full
capacity of the channel to send their packets to the central computer.
• Transmissions between stations take place through the central computer, which
receives packets from each station and then transmits them to the appropriate
stations.
• The lines connecting the stations and the central computer are usually high-speed lines.
 Token Passing
• In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there.
• As the number of hosts in the network increases, the chances
of collisions also will become more.
• In token passing, when a host want to transmit data, it should
hold the token, which is an empty packet.
• The token is circling the network in a very high speed.
• If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait for the
token.
• When the token has reached the workstation, the workstation
can take the token from the network, fill it with data, mark the
token as being used and place the token back to the network.
 Network Topologies
• It is basically known as Structure of network.
• The physical arrangement of the computer system, which
is connected to each other via communication medium is
called topology.
• Devices on the network are referred to as 'nodes.'
• The most common nodes are computers and peripheral
devices like printers, scanners, etc.
• Network topology is illustrated by showing these nodes
and their connections using cables.
• There are a number of different types of network
topologies, including bus, star, ring, mesh, tree and hybrid.
 Bus Topology
• In Bus topology, one main cable(backbone for the network) act as a single
communication channel & all the devices are directly connected to this
cable.
• One of the computers in the network typically acts as the computer
server.
• A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network
sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but
only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.
 Bus Topology
• Advantages :
– Easy to add/remove nodes in a network.
– Required only cable.
– It is less expensive.
– It broadcast the message to each device which are
connected through the cable.
– It is easy to maintain.
– In case of any computer failure, there will be no
effect on other devices.
 Bus Topology
• Disadvantages :
– If the main cable breaks, the entire network will be
fail.
– The message are broadcast so, we can’t send
private message.
– It takes more time to pass the messages from one
place to another place.
– The length of cable is limited.
– In this topology data is transmitted only one
direction.
 Ring Topology
• In ring topology, the computers in the network are connected
in a circular fashion, and the data travels in one direction.
• Each computer is directly connected to the next computer,
forming a single pathway for signals through the network.
 Advantages
• This type of network is easy to install and
manage.
• If there's a problem in the network, it is easy to
pinpoint which connection is defective.
• It forms a strong network.
• Each an every node can share data with another
node connected through a ring topology.
• Transmission rate of data is very speed.
 Disadvantages
• It is very difficult task to add some new computer.
• If we want to send data from a source to
destination machine then data will un-necessary
passed to all nodes.
• Single point of failure, that means if a node goes
down entire network goes down.
• It is very difficult to recover the ring topology if any
particular machine is not working properly.
• We can’t send private message.
 Star Topology
• In star topology, All the computers are connected to a central device
called HUB and the sharing of data is only possible through HUB.
• The central hub can be a computer server that manages the network, or it
can be a much simpler device that only makes the connections between
computers over the network possible.
 Advantages
• Star topology is very popular because the
startup costs are low.
• It is also easy to add new nodes without
affecting rest of the network .
• The network is robust in the sense that if one
connection between a computer and the hub
fails, it would not be failure of entire network.
 Disadvantages
• In star topology, we must required a network
devices like HUB, Switch, etc.
• If two nodes want to share the data, sharing is
only possible through HUB.
• If the central hub fails, however, the entire
network goes down.
• It also requires more cable than bus topology
and is, therefore, more expensive.
• We can’t send private data.
 Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology, Each an every computer is directly connected
with each other, so we can directly send the data to the
destination machine without going to intermediate machine.
• Because all connections are direct, the network can handle very
high-volume traffic.
 Advantages
• It is very good topology to send the private
message.
• All nodes are directly associated with another
node so it provide point-to-point connection.
• Unlike ring topology, if a particular machine is
failed, the entire network will not fail.
• Multiple devices can send or receive data
simultaneously.
 Disadvantages
• It is very difficult to add some new node
because each an every computer directly
connected with another one.
• If a particular machine not working, then we
can’t send or receive data from the failure
machine.
 Tree Topology
• Tree topology combines multiple star
topologies onto a bus.
• Hub devices for each star topology are
connected to the bus.
• Each hub is like the root of a tree of devices.
• This provides great flexibility for expanding
and modifying the network.
Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
• A hybrid topology uses a combination of two
or more topologies.
• Hybrid networks provide a lot of flexibility, and
as a result, they have become the most widely
used type of topology.
• Common examples are star-ring networks and
star-bus networks.
• Tree topology is one specific example of a star-
bus network.
Hybrid Topology
 Advance Network Topology
• Ethernet
• CDDI(Copper Distributed Data Interface)
• FDDI(Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
 Ethernet
• Ethernet is a form of communication channel that uses
wired technology in network model as LAN or WAN and
provides the way to transmit data between them
through the application of protocols.
• Ethernet is also used in different area networks like LAN,
MAN, WAN.
• Ethernet connecting computers together with cable so
the computers can share information.
• Within each main branch of the network, "Ethernet" can
connect up to 1024 personal computers and
workstations.
• Ethernet provides high-speed data transmission in the
communication channel.
• Ethernet data transmission is secured in the
connection.
• The reliability of the data transferred is provided up to
maximum point.
• There are three types of Ethernet:
– Fast Ethernet : Use twisted pair cable, speed up to 100
Mbps and use personal data connection.
– Gigabit Ethernet : upgraded format of fast Ethernet and
speed up to 1000 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
– Switched Ethernet : use switches or hubs for improve
network and speed up to 1000 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
• Systems that use Ethernet communication divide their data
into packets, which are also known as frames.
• These frames further contain source and destination address,
a mechanism which was used to detect errors in the data and
retransmission requests.
• Advantages of Ethernet :
• Cost of installation of Ethernet network is relatively low.
• Provides high security to data in transmission
• Network maintenance & data quality check is done over
time.
• High speed data transmission is available.
• Disadvantages of Ethernet :
• Suitable only for short distance network due hardware
issue.
• Not applicable for real-time application. Eg. Market
value checks.
• Network traffic increases the transmission time for the
data.
 CDDI
• CDDI stands for Copper Distributed Data Interface
• For a local area network (LAN), CDDI is a standard for data transmission
based on FDDI(Fiber Distributed Data Interface) that uses shielded twisted-
pair (STP) or unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wire instead of fiber
optic lines.
• CDDI supports a dual-ring capacity of 200 Mbps.
• CDDI's maximum distance is up to 200 meters, which is much shorter than
FDDI.
• CDDI is defined by the American National Standards Committee and
conforms to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of functional
layering.
• CDDI is officially named the Twisted-Pair Physical Medium Dependent (TP-
PMD) standard and is also referred to as Twisted Pair Distributed Data
Interface (TP-DDI).
• This type of network can support thousands of users or terminals as well as
cover a wide geographical area.
 FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI)
• FDDI is a set of ANSI and ISO standards for
transmission of data in LAN over Fiber optic
cable.
• It is applicable in large LANs that can extend up
to 200 kilometers in diameter.
• FDDI uses optical fiber as a physical medium.
• It operates in the physical and medium access
control(MAC) of the open system
interconnection (OSI) network model.
• An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for possible
backup in case the primary ring fails.
• The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbps capacity.
• If the secondary ring is not needed for backup, it can also carry
data, extending capacity to 200 Mbps.
• The single ring can extend the maximum distance, a dual ring
can extend 100 km (62 miles).
• FDDI is a product of American National Standards Committee
X3-T9 and conforms to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI
) model of functional layering.
• It can be used to interconnect LANs using other protocols.
FDDI-II is a version of FDDI that adds the capability to
add Circuit Switched service to the network so that voice
signals can also be handled.
 Communication Method
• Casting in a network is basically of three types:
• Unicast
• Broadcast
– Limited Broadcast
– Direct Broadcast
• Multicast
 Unicast
• Transmitting data from one source host to one
destination host is called an Unicast.
• It is a one to one transmission.
• All LANs (e.g. Ethernet) and IP
networks support the unicast transfer mode,
and most users are familiar with the standard
Unicast applications.
• Unicast Application like HTTP, SMTP, FTP which
employ the TCP transport protocol.
 Broadcast
• Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts residing
in a network either same or other network is called as broadcast.
• It is a one to all(many) transmission.
• In this case there is just one sender, but the information is sent to
all connected receivers.
• Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANs
(e.g. Ethernet), and may be used to send the same message to all
computers on the LAN.
• Network layer protocols (such as IPv4) also support a form of
broadcast that allows the same packet to be sent to every system
in a logical network (in IPv4 this consists of the IP network ID and
an all 1's host number).
 Limited Broadcast
• Transmitting data from one source hosts to all other hosts
residing in the same network is called limited broadcast.
• Limited Broadcast Address for any network is all 32 bits set to 1
:
• 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 = 255.255.255.255
 Direct Broadcast
• Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts
residing in some other network is called as direct broadcast.
• Direct Broadcast Address for any network is the IP Address
where, Network ID is the IP Address of the network where all
the destination hosts are present and host ID bits are all set to 1.
 Multicast
• Transmitting data from one source host to a particular group
of hosts having interest in receiving the data is called as
multicast.
• It is one to many transmission.
• One example of an application which may use multicast is a
video server sending out networked TV channels.
• Multicast applications must use the UDP transport protocol .
 Protocol
• Network layers follow a set of rules, called
protocol.
• The protocol defines the format of the data
being exchanged, and the control and timing
for the handshake between layers.
 OSI Reference Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.
• It has been developed by ISO (International
Organization of Standardization) in year 1984.
• It is a 7 layer architecture where each layer
having specific functionality.
• All those 7 layer work collaboratively to
transmit the data from one network to
another network across the globe.
• The OSI model describes how information or
data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a
network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another
network.
OSI Model

Physical Layer
• The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical
specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship
between a device and a physical medium.
• This includes the layout of pin, voltages, cable specification, hubs,
repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters, and more.
• The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer
are:
• Establishment and termination of a connection to
a communication medium.
• Participation in the process whereby the communication
resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For
example, flow control.
• Modulation between the representation of digital data in user
equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a
communications channel. These are signals operating over the
physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber)
OSI Model

Data Link Layer

This layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of
message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer
is error free from one node to another.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is responsible of DDL
(Data Link Layer) to transmit it to host using its MAC address
(Media Access Control).
Function of Data link layer:
Framing
Physical Addressing
Flow Control
• The data link layer performs the error check using
the Frame Check Sequence(FCS) in the trailer and
discards the frame if an error is detected.
• One is Media Access Control (MAC) and another is
Logical Link Control (LLC).
• Mac is lower sub-layer, and it defines the way about
the media access transfer, such as
CSMA/CD/CA(Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection/Collision Avoidance)
• LLC provides data transmission method in different
network. It will re-package and add a new header.
OSI Model

Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through the
network.
Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from
the source to the destination
Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be
identified.
Handles blockage in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between networking.
The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet
into smaller packets to accommodate different media.
OSI Model

Transport Layer
The data in the transport layer is referred to as segments.
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for
the exchange of data between two processes in different
computers.
Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
Provides for the connection management.
OSI Model

Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue
between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and
end conversations (called sessions) between applications.
This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on
an end-user’s request.
Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
Function :
Authentication – check log-on or password validation
Authorization – check privileges(read , write, etc)
Dialog control – allows two system to start communication.
OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer is also known as translation layer.
The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per required format to transmit over the
network.
Functions of presentation layer are :
Translation
Data Compression
Encryption/Decryption
OSI Model

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with application programs and is
the highest level of OSI model.
This layer produce data, which has to be transferred over
the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network.
Examples of application layer are applications such as file
transfer, electronic mail, remote login, directory services
etc.
 OSI Model
Data unit Layer Function
Network process to
7. Application
application
Data representation,
Data 6. Presentation encryption and
decryption
Host
layers Interhost
5. Session
communication
End-to-end
connections and
Segments 4. Transport
reliability, Flow
control
Path determination
Packet 3. Network and logical
Media addressing
layers Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
Media, signal and
Bit 1. Physical
binary transmission
 TCP/IP Reference Model
• TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet
Protocol.
• TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of
communication protocols.
• It was developed by the department of defence(DoD)
project research agency(DARPA) in the 1960s.
• It is named after the two main protocols that are used in
the model, namely, TCP and IP.
• It is the network model used in the current internet
architecture as well.
• As a part of research project of network interconnection to
connect remote machine.
• The key TCP/IP features :
– End Node Verification : The two endpoint of any
data transfer that are responsible to remember
only destination address no need to remember
centralized control system(router, etc) required.
– Dynamic Routing : End nodes can transfer data
over multiple paths and the network chooses the
best path for internal data transfer.
 Application Layer
TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS...

Transport Layer
TCP, UDP....

Internet Layer
IP, ARP, RARP

Link Layer
FDDI, ETHERNET
Network Encapsulation
 Link Layer
• Link layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• Link layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping
of IP addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI,
etc.
 Internet Layer
• It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over
the network.
• The main protocol in this layer is :
• IP – Internet Protocol
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
• RARP – Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control,
and correction of data which is being sent over the network.
• It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data.
• The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single
path.
• Function such as segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message into small units and also
arrange the packets and units to be sent in sequence.
 Difference between TCP and UDP
TCP UDP
It stands for Transmission Control It stands for User DataGram
Protocol. Protocol.
TCP is a Connection Oriented UDP is a Connection Less
Protocol. Protocol.
It is reliable. It is not reliable.
It is slower than UDP. It is faster than TCP.
The header size of TCP is 20 UDP header size is 8 byte.
bytes.
Retransmission of lost packet is Retransmission of lost packet is
possible. not possible.
It used HTTPS, HTTP, SMTP, FTP, It used video conferencing, DNS,
etc. etc.
 Application Layer
• This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host
programs with the transport layer services.
• This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP,
FTP, SMTP, etc.
• The TCP/IP specification describe a lot of application.
– TELNET (Teletype Network Protocol): It is a two way communication to
remote machine and run application on it.
– FTP (File Transfer Protocol) : It is a protocol that allow file transfer
among computer users connected over a network.
– SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) : It is a protocol which is used to
transparent electronic mail between a source and destination directly
via a route
– DNS (Domain Name Server) : It resolve an IP address into a textual
address for host connected over a network
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI TCP/IP
OSI stands for Open System TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol/ Internet Protocol
It is a theoretical model which is used for It is a client server model used for
computing system. transmission of data over the internet.
It has 7 layers which are application, It has 4 layers which are Application,
presentation, session, transport, network, Transport, Internet and Link layer.
Data link, and Physical.
Developed By ISO(International Standard Developed By DoD(Department Of
Organization) Defence)
In this layer, Transport Layer is both In this layer, Transport Layer is Connection
Connection Oriented and Connection less. Oriented.
OSI model has a separate Presentation TCP/IP does not have a separate
layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI TCP/IP
Network layer of OSI model provides both The Network layer in TCP/IP model
connection oriented and connectionless provides connectionless service.
service.
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology
changes.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
protocols very clearly and makes clear protocols are not clearly separated. It is
distinction between them. It is protocol protocol dependent.
independent.
 File Sharing
• File sharing is the practice of sharing or offering access to digital
information or resources, including documents, multimedia
(audio/video), graphics, computer programs, images and e-books.
• It is the private or public distribution of data or resources in a
network.
• File sharing can be done using several methods.
• The most common techniques for file storage, distribution and
transmission include the following
– Removable storage devices
– Centralized file hosting server installations on networks
– World Wide Web-oriented hyperlinked documents
– Distributed peer-to-peer networks
 Steps for File sharing in LAN
• Open : Control Panel\Network and Internet\
Network and Sharing Centre\Advanced
sharing settings.
• Turn on Network Discovery.
• Turn on file and printer sharing.
 Print Sharing
• Print sharing is the process of allowing multiple computers and devices
connected to the same network to access one or more printers.
• Each node or device on the network can print to any shared printer
and, make changes to the printer settings, depending on the
permissions set by the administrator for each user.
• If a printer is attached to a computer that supports printer sharing, the
computer can share that printer with other computers on the same
network.
• When a print request is sent from a networked computer, this is
received by the computer where the shared printer is attached; this
host computer initializes the printer and then sends the print job to it.
• If Two or more computers want to print at the same time, the
FCFS(First Come first serve) algorithm is used.
 Mapping of Network Drive
• Windows 10:
– Map a network drive to get to it from File Explorer in Windows
without having to look for it or type its network address each
time.
1. Open File Explorer from the taskbar or the Start menu, or press
the Windows logo key + E.
2. Select This PC from the left pane. Then, on the Computer tab,
select Map network drive.
3. In the Drive list, select a drive letter. (Any available letter will do.)
4. In the Folder box, type the path of the folder or computer,
or select Browse to find the folder or computer. To connect every
time you log on to your PC, select the Reconnect at sign-in check
box.
5. Select Finish.
• Windows 7
– Map a network drive to get to it from Computer or
Windows Explorer without having to look for it or
type its network address each time.
1. Open Computer by clicking the Start button and
then clicking Computer.
2. Click Map Network Drive.
3. In the Drive list, click any available drive letter.
4. In the Folder box, type the path of the folder or
computer, or click Browse to find the folder or
computer. To connect every time you log on to your
computer, select the Reconnect at logon check box.
5. Click Finish.
 Disk Quota
• Disk quotas are a means of controlling the storage
space available to Windows users.
• An administrator can enforce limits on disk quotas
so that no user account can exceed them.
• This means that, whenever a user exceeds their disk
quota, he or she can no longer add new data to the
disk.
• the administrator can also set warning levels, so that
the users know beforehand when they are getting
close to their quota limit.
• Following steps are use disk quotas to limit the storage space
of each user account:
• Step 1. Turn on the disk quota management
– Start by opening File Explorer (in Windows 10 or 8.1) or Windows
Explorer (in Windows 7). Then, go to This PC (in Windows 10 or 8.1)
or Computer (in Windows 7) and click or tap the disk for which you
want to set quota limits. Right-click or tap and hold on the disk, and
then choose Properties.
– In the drive's Properties, go to the Quota tab, and click or tap
the "Show Quota Settings "button.
– In the "Quota Settings" window, you can make the settings required
to enforce quota limits for each user account from your Windows
computer.
– First, you have to "Enable quota management." This is the setting
that turns on the disk quotas on the selected disk. All the other
options in this window are greyed out, but once you enable
the quota management, all the other settings should become active.
• Step 2. Use disk quotas to limit the storage space of each
user
– Now you can proceed and enforce quota limits: check the
option that says "Deny disk space to users exceeding quota
limit," select "Limit disk space to," and input the quota limit.
– If you want the operating system to log an event when a user
is close to his or her disk space limit, also set the warning level.
– If you are wondering what happens if a user reaches his or her
disk quota limit, know that every time a user fills his or her
disk quota with files, two things take place:
– The user gets an "out of space" message, and The user cannot
add new data on that drive.
– However, the user can clean some of its allocated disk space by
doing things like:
• emptying the Recycle Bin,
• deleting the files he or she does not need,
• uninstalling some programs and apps.
• Step 3. Log disk quota events when the users
exceed their quota limits or warning levels
– If you also want the operating system to log the disk
quota events on your computer, you can enable the
quota logging options. In the drive's "Quota
Settings" window check one or both of the following
options:
– "Log event when a user exceeds their quota limit."
– "Log event when a user exceeds their warning level."
– Then, each time an event takes place, it is recorded
by the operating system and can be viewed in
Event Viewer, in the System category from
the Windows Logs.
• Step 4. Apply the disk quota settings
– To enable all the settings that you have made until
now, click or tap Apply. Windows should ask you
to confirm again that you want to enable disk
quotas. Press OK, and you are good to go.
 Encryption
• Network encryption is the process of encrypting or encoding data
and messages transmitted or communicated over a computer
network.
• It is a broad process that includes various techniques and standards
to ensure that the messages are unreadable when in transit
between two or more network nodes.
• Network encryption is primarily implemented on the network layer
of the OSI model.
• Network encryption implements one or more encryption algorithms,
processes and standards to encrypt the data/message/packet sent
over the network.
• The encryption services are generally provided by encryption
software
• On an IP-based network, network encryption
is implemented through Internet Protocol
Security (IPSec)-based encryption techniques
and standards.
• Each message sent is in an encrypted form and
is decrypted and converted back into plain
text/original form at the recipient's end using
encryption/decryption keys.
 Data Compression
• Data compression is the process of modifying or converting the bits
structure of data in such a way that it consumes less space on disk.
• It enables reducing the storage size of one or more data instances or
elements.
• Data compression is also known as bit-rate reduction.
• Data compression enables sending a data object or file quickly over a
network or the Internet and in optimizing physical storage resources.
• Data compression has wide implementation in computing services
and solutions, specifically data communications.
• Data compression works through several compressing techniques
and software solutions that utilize data compression algorithms to
reduce the data size.
• Compression is performed by a program that uses a formula
or algorithm to determine how to shrink the size of the data.
• For instance, an algorithm may represent a string of bits -- or
0s and 1s -- with a smaller string of 0s and 1s by using a
dictionary for the conversion between them, or the formula
may insert a reference
• Text compression can be as simple as removing all
unneeded characters, inserting a single repeat character to
indicate a string of repeated characters and substituting a
smaller bit string for a frequently occurring bit string.
• Data compression can reduce a text file to 50% or a
significantly higher percentage of its original size.
• For data transmission, compression can be performed on the
data content or on the entire transmission unit,
including header data.
 Net Meeting
• NetMeeting was a popular audio/video conferencing and
instant messaging (IM) application that was included with
Microsoft Windows versions 95 OR to Windows XP.
• NetMeeting was replaced by Windows Meeting Space when
Windows Vista was released.
• NetMeeting provided desktop audio/video sharing, chat and
file transfer functionalities.
• NetMeeting was initially associated with later Internet
Explorer (IE) 3 versions and IE 4.0’s early version.
• This was before free IM clients were the norm.
• NetMeeting is now no longer used in any significant sense.