English optional project
Teacher:Anda Biste
Student:Luca Samuel
Subject:English optional
Class:11 U
2016 United States presidential election
The 2016 United States presidential election was the 58th quadrennial
presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. The Republican
ticket, businessman Donald Trump and Indiana governor Mike Pence defeated
the Democratic ticket of former secretary of state and First Lady of the United
States Hillary Clinton and the junior senator from Virginia, Tim Kaine, in
what was considered one of the biggest political upsets in American history. It
was also the sixth presidential election in which both major party candidates
were registered in the same home state; the others have been in 1860, 1904,
1920, 1940, and 1944.
Incumbent Democratic president Barack Obama was ineligible to pursue a
third term due to the term limits established by the Twenty-second
Amendment to the US Constitution. Clinton secured the nomination over U.S.
senator Bernie Sanders in the Democratic primary and became the first female
presidential nominee of a major American political party. Trump emerged as
his party's front-runner amidst a wide field of candidates in the Republican
primary, defeating U.S. senators Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, governors John
Kasich and Jeb Bush, among other candidates. Trump's right-wing populist,
nationalist campaign, which promised to "Make America Great Again" and
opposed political correctness, illegal immigration, and many United States
free-trade agreements garnered extensive free media coverage due to Trump's
inflammatory comments. Clinton emphasized her extensive political
experience, denounced Trump and many of his supporters as a "basket of
deplorables", bigots and extremists, and advocated the expansion of president
Barack Obama's policies; racial, LGBT, and women's rights; and inclusive
capitalism.
Donald Trump
Hillary Clinton
Polarization of the camps through mass-
media
Polarization is a phenomenon where a society becomes divided into two or more factions, each
with their own beliefs, values, and ideologies. This division can occur as a result of a variety of
factors, including politics, religion, and social issues. In the age of social media and mass media,
polarization is becoming increasingly commonplace.
One of the primary drivers of this trend is the use of mass media to amplify divisive rhetoric and
political discourse. Social media platforms, in particular, have been criticized for their role in
creating echo chambers and fostering polarization. These platforms often use algorithms to feed
users content that aligns with their beliefs and preferences, which can lead to a warped version of
reality. This creates a feedback loop wherein users are exposed to the same ideas and opinions
over and over again.
Furthermore, mass media outlets such as news channels and newspapers often
have their own biases and agendas, which can also lead to polarization. By
presenting only one side of an argument or focusing on sensationalized
headlines, they can create a warped view of certain issues. This can lead to
people developing a distorted understanding of the world around them and
becoming more extreme in their beliefs.
The consequence of this polarization is that it causes a divide between
different social groups and political factions. This divide can often lead to a
breakdown in communication, a lack of understanding, and even violence.
Selective exposure theory
Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology, often used in media and
communication research, that historically refers to individuals' tendency to favorite information
which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information. Selective
exposure has also been known and defined as "congeniality bias" or "confirmation bias" in
various texts throughout the years.
According to the historical use of the term, people tend to select specific aspects of exposed
information which they incorporate into their mindset. These selections are made based on their
perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, and decisions. People can mentally dissect the information they
are exposed to and select favorable evidence, while ignoring the unfavorable.
The foundation of this theory is rooted in the cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger
1957), which asserts that when individuals are confronted with contrasting ideas,
certain mental defense mechanisms are activated to produce harmony between new
ideas and pre-existing beliefs, which results in cognitive equilibrium. Cognitive
equilibrium, which is defined as a state of balance between a person's mental
representation of the world and his or her environment, is crucial to understanding
selective exposure theory. According to Jean Piaget, when a mismatch occurs,
people find it to be "inherently dissatisfying".
Information bubbles
Information bubbles refer to the tendency of people to consume media or
information that aligns with their existing beliefs, biases, and values. These
bubbles can be created by search engines, social media algorithms, and other
means of media consumption. By serving users content that is similar to what
they have previously viewed or searched for, digital platforms can
unintentionally limit their exposure to alternative perspectives and ideas.
This phenomenon is particularly troubling today, where technology has
greatly changed the way people gather and consume information. We no
longer rely solely on traditional media outlets such as newspapers, magazines,
and television to keep us informed.
Instead, we have access to an expansive array of information thanks to the
internet and its various platforms, including search engines, social media
networks, and streaming services. While this has allowed for increased access
to information, it has also created a number of challenges.
One of these challenges is the formation of information bubbles. Social media
platforms, in particular, have been found to be particularly susceptible to this
phenomenon. The algorithms used by these platforms are designed to serve
users content that is similar to what they have previously viewed, liked, or
commented on. This creates an echo chamber effect, where users are exposed
only to those who hold similar beliefs and viewpoints.
Echo chambers
An echo chamber is a situation in which ideas and beliefs are amplified within a group, without
being challenged or questioned. This can lead to a distorted perception of reality, where
individuals may become increasingly polarized and unable to engage with opposing viewpoints.
This can have far-reaching consequences, as it can reinforce prejudice, bias, and other negative
attitudes towards people who hold different beliefs and opinions.
In the context of society at large, echo chambers can contribute to greater social divisions,
creating a sense of mistrust among individuals and limiting the potential for constructive dialog.
This can lead to individuals becoming more entrenched in their views and less willing to consider
alternative perspectives. This in turn can exacerbate existing social challenges, such as income
inequality, discrimination, and political polarization.
Social polarization
Social polarization is the segregation within a society that emerges when factors
such as income inequality, real-estate fluctuations and economic displacement result
in the differentiation of social groups from high-income to low-income. It is a state
and/or a tendency denoting the growth of groups at the extremities of the social
hierarchy and the parallel shrinking of groups around its middle.
An early body of research on social polarization was conducted by R.E. Pahl on the
Isle of Sheppey, in which he provided a comparison between a pre-capitalist society
and capitalist society.
More recently, a number of research projects have been increasingly addressing the
issues of social polarization within the developed economies. When social
polarization occurs in addition to economic restructuring, particularly in cities,
economic inequality along social class and racial lines is exacerbated. Such
separation can be best observed in the urban environment, "where [communities] of
extreme wealth and social power are interspersed with places of deprivation,
exclusion, and decline."
In addition to how spatial compositions are managed in cities, the technologies used
in regards to social relations can also contribute to social polarization
Increased spatial segregation of socioeconomic groups correlates strongly with
social polarization as well as social exclusion and societal fragmentation.
