WELCOME TO:

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
(Psyc1011)
CLASS

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 CHAPTER ONE:
ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.1.Meaning & Definition of Psychology
 The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words:
 PSYCHE: mind, soul or sprit
 LOGOS : study, knowledge or discourse.
 Thus, the word “psychology" epistemologically refers to
the study of the mind, soul, or sprit
 It is often represented by the Greek letter ᴪ (psi) which is
read as ("sy").

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 The scientific definition of psychology is:
Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior
and the underlying mental process.
 Analysis of basic terms
◦ SCIENCE: Psychologists follow scientific procedures and use
empirical data to study behavior and mental processes.

◦ BEHAVIOR: refers to all of our outward or overt actions and

reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, movement, etc.

◦ MENTAL PROCESSES: refer to all the internal, covert

activities of our minds, such as thinking, feeling,
remembering, etc.
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 1.2.Goals of Psychology
 The study of psychology has four basic goals:
 1. DESCRIPTION:
 Observing behavior and describe as objectively
as possible
 2. EXPLANATION:
 Knowing why did the subject do what he or she
did.
 3. PREDICTION:
 Speculate what will happen in the future.
 4. CONTROL:
 Intervene to change the negative behavior

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1.3.HISTORICAL ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
 In talking about history answering the following
questions is mandatory.
 WHEN? -1879
 WHY? - Due to the establishment of
psychological laboratory.
 WHO? - Wilhelm Wundt
 WHERE? -Leipzig, Germany

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 1.3.1.Early Schools of Psychology
School
Structuralism Emphasizes
Structuralism to find out elements which make up the mind
 Functionalism
Functionalism Understand the role of mind & behavior
 Gestalt
Gestalt to understand the conscious experience in
 Behaviorism holistic terms

Behaviorism understanding the outer person

 Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis to dig below the surface of a person’s behavior
The five schools are distinguished from one another in
three major ways.
 Goals of study
 Object of study
 Method of study
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1.3.2.Modern Perspectives of Psychology
School Focus Area(s)
 Neurobiological Perspective
how bodily events/ functioning of the body
Neurobiological affect behavior, feelings and thoughts
 Learning Perspective
how the environment affects the person’s (or an
Learning
 Cognitive perspective
animal’s) actions.
mental processes involved in knowing: how we
Socio-cultural
Cognitive perspective
direct our attention, how perceive, how we
 Psychodynamic perspective
remember, and how we think and solve
problems.
 Humanistic perspective
social and cultural forces outside the individual
Socio-cultural
unconscious aspects of the mind, conflict
Psychodynamic between biological instincts and society’s 7
1.4.Braches/Sub-fields in psychology
Sub-fields Focus areas
Clinical ᴪ diagnose and treat emotional and behavioral disorders

Counseling ᴪ “normal” problems of adjustment that most of us face

Health ᴪ prevention and treatment of physical illness and

diseases

Educational ᴪ increasing the efficiency of learning

Industrial ᴪ behavior in the workplace

Social ᴪ the way we affect and are influenced by other people

Developmental ᴪ development of humans over the entire life span

Forensic ᴪ problems and behaviors of prisoners, criminals, and

delinquents

Personality ᴪ relatively enduring traits and characteristics of 8

1.5.Research Methods in Psychology
 Definition:
◦ Research is a systematic investigation of an issue or a
problem or a phenomena.
 Major goals are to:
◦ solve problem
◦ add knowledge

 With particular to psychology:

◦ Study development, external factors and the role they play on
individuals' mental health.
◦ Study people with specific psychological disorders.
◦ Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenon.
◦ Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals' mental
health.
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Types of Research Methods
1) Experimental Methods
 Used to see the causal relationship between two variables.
 There are three variables:
◦ Independent- cause changes in the other
◦ Dependent- shows the effect of other variable
◦ control/confounding- things remain common for both groups
 There are two groups:
◦ Experimental group- receives IV
◦ Control group- doesn’t receives IV

2) Correlational Studies
 Used to find out the strength and direction of relationship between
variables.
 correlation does not equal causation

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3) Naturalistic Observation
◦ Used to observe behavior in their natural environment
4) Case Study
◦ Used to make in-depth study of a single case, typically over an
extended period of time
5) Survey
◦ Used to study large number of people within short period of
time

Steps of scientific research

 There are at least five major steps to be followed.
◦ Step 1: Defining the Problem
◦ Step 2: Formulating the Hypothesis
◦ Step 3: Testing the Hypothesis
◦ Step 4: Drawing Conclusions
◦ Step 5: Reporting Results

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 CHAPTER TWO:
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
3.1.SENSATION
 is the process by which our senses gather information
and send it to the brain.

3.1.1.Sensory Laws
 are laws that explain how sensation works
1) Sensory Threshold
 Is a minimum point of intensity that can be detected

A) Absolute Threshold: is the minimum amount of

stimulation a person can detect.
B) Difference Threshold: is the minimum amount of change
that can be detected.
2) Sensory Adaptation
 decreasing responsiveness to unchanging stimulus.
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 3.2.PERCEPTION
 Is the process by which our mind attaches a meaning to
selected sensations.
◦ is a meaning making process.
 Involves three steps
◦ Step 1: Selective attention
◦ Step 2: Form perception

◦ Step 3: Interpretation
 It helps to understand the major characteristics of the
perceptual process:
◦ selectivity of perception, form perception, depth perception,
perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusion.
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 3.2.1.Selectivity of Perception: Attention
 Is the process of selecting certain inputs for inclusion in
conscious experience, or awareness, at any given time,
ignoring others.

 Paying attention is in general a function of two factors:

◦ Factors external to the perceiver (environmental)
 Size and intensity
 Repetition
 Novelty (or newness)
 Movement
◦ Factors internal to the perceiver (psychological)
 Set or expectancy
 Motives or needs
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3.2.2.Form Perception
 Similarity

 Proximity

 Closure

 Continuity

 Figure-ground
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 3.2.3.Depth Perception
 Is the ability to judge the distance of objects.
 It depends on the use binocular cues and monocular cues.
1) Binocular Cues: require the interaction of both eyes.
◦ there are two kinds:
A) Retinal Disparity:
B) Convergence:
2) Monocular Cues: requires viewing a scene with one eye.
◦ There are a variety of monocular cues.
A) Accommodation
B) Motion Parallax
C) Interposition
D) Relative size
E) Linear perspective
F) Elevation
G) Texture Gradient
H) Shading 16
 3.2.4. Perceptual Constancy
 Is continuing to perceive a given object as stable in
size, shape, and brightness.

 Thus, perceptual/visual constancy can be generally

classified in to:
 Size Constancy
 Shape Constancy
 Brightness Constancy

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 3.2.5.Perceptual Illusion
 It occurs when two objects produce the same retinal
image but are perceived as different images.
 It is an inappropriate interpretation of the physical
reality.
 Visual Illusion: occurs when two objects produce almost
the same retinal image but are perceived as different
images.
◦ Ponzo Illusion
◦ Horizontal-vertical Illusion
◦ Muller-lyer Illusion
◦ Moon Illusion
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 3.3. Extrasensory Perception
 Psychologists claim people can send and receive
messages about the world without relying on the usual
sensory channels.
 They fall into four general categories:
 Telepathy
 Clairvoyance
 Precognition
 Psycho kinesis

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 CHAPTER THREE
LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING

 Definitions
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
occurring as a result of experience or practice.

 Basic questions:
 Is there a change?
 For how long the change exists?
 What factors caused the change?

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
 Learning is :
 continuous modification,
 pervasive,
 involves the whole person,
 organization of experiences,
 responsive to incentives,
 an active process,
 Purposeful,
 Multifaceted,
 depends on maturation, motivation and practice.

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PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
 There are important principles that help
explaining how learning occurs effectively.
◦ Readiness
◦ Meaningful practice and exercise
◦ Consequences
◦ Primacy
◦ Recent
◦ Intensity
◦ Background
◦ Freedom

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FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
 Motivation
 Maturation
 Health condition of the learner
 Psychological wellbeing of the learner
 Good working conditions
 Background experiences
 Length of the working period
 Massed and distributed learning

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LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Learning Theories

Behavioral Social Cognitive

Classical Operant
Conditioning Conditioning

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BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEARNING
 Learning occurs as a result of stimulus-response
associations.
 differ among themselves with respect to their views
about the role of reinforcement in learning
 There are two major behavioral theories of learning.
 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
 was discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov
 a process in which a neutral stimulus acquires all the
characteristics of natural stimulus.
 is also called substitution learning

 PAVLOV‘S EXPERIMENT

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PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITION
 The basic principles of classical conditioning
include:
 Extinction,
 Spontaneous Recovery,
 Stimulus Generalization,
 Stimulus Discriminations,

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 OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
 is learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable
or unfavorable consequences
 Was discovered by B.F Skinner
 also called Instrumental Conditioning
 In Skinner‘s analysis, a response (-operant) can lead to
three types of consequences:
 neutral consequence,
 reinforcement and
 punishment.

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 REINFORCEMENT
 Is anything that strengthens the response or
makes it more likely to recur.
 Based on their power:

◦ Primary reinforcers: satisfy biological needs; strengthen a

behavior without prior learning.
◦ Secondary reinforcers: strengthen behavior because of their
prior association with primary reinforcing stimuli.
 Based on their application:
◦ Positive reinforcers: presentation of pleasant stimulus makes
behavior more likely to occur again.
◦ Negative reinforcers: termination of an aversive stimulus
makes behavior more likely to occur.

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 Schedules of reinforcement

Partial/Intermittent Continuous

Ratio Interval
Schedule Schedule

Fixed Variable Fixed Variable

Ratio Ratio Interval Interval

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 PUNISHMENT
 Is anything that weakens the response or makes
it unlikely to recur.
 Based on their power:

◦ Primary punishers: Pain and extreme heat or cold

◦ Secondary punishers: Criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding,
fines, and bad grades.
 Based on their application:
◦ Positive punishers : presentation of unpleasant stimulus
makes behavior unlikely to occur again.
◦ Negative punishers : termination of pleasant stimulus makes
behavior unlikely to occur.

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PRINCIPLES OF PUNISHMENT

1) Immediacy –
 When punishment follows immediately after the
behavior to be punished.
2) Consistency-
 when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being
punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore
becomes resistant to extinction.
3) Intensity-
 In general terms severe punishments are more
effective than mild ones.

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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 Was discovered by Albert Bandura
 is learning by watching the behavior of another
person, or model.
 Also called observational learning
 Bandura identifies two methods of learning:
◦ Vicarious learning
◦ Imitation
 He further identified three forms of reinforcement:
◦ direct reinforcement
◦ vicarious reinforcement
◦ self-reinforcement

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PROCESSES/STEPS OF LEARNING
 According to Bandura, the occurrence of learning pass
through four consecutive steps.
◦ Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
◦ Retention: be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed.

◦ Motor reproduction: is the ability to replicate the behavior

that the model has just demonstrated.

◦ Motivation: learners must want to demonstrate what they

have learned.

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COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
 Learning is the result of active mental processes.
 Cognitive learning may take two forms:
◦ Latent learning
 is learning that occurs but is not evident in behavior until
later, when conditions for its appearance are favorable

◦ Insight learning
 is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our
perception of a problem.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
MEMORY AND FORGETTING
 What is Memory?
 is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over
time
 The nature of memory can be classified in to two: process and
structure.

 MEMORY PROCESSES
 is the mental activities we perform to put information
into memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later.
 involves three basic steps:
 Encoding:
 Storage:
 Retrieval:
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 MEMORY STRUCTURE
 Is the nature of memory storage
 Is how information is represented in memory and how
long it lasts and how it is organized.
 The are three structures of memory. These are:
 Sensory Memory
 Short-Term Memory
 Long-Term Memory
 They are distinguished based on three main criterion.
 Length of time
 Type of information
 Amount of information

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 Memory Structures
Sensory Short-Term Long Term
Non-
Memory Memory Decla Memory
S E decla
rativ
e p rativ
e/
m is e/
expli
a o impli
cit Pro
n d cit
Mem ced
ti i Mem
ory ural
c c ory
Me
M M
mor
e e
y
m m
o o 38
Information Processing Model

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 Short term memory is distinguished by four
characteristics:
◦ It is active
◦ Rapid accessibility
◦ Preserves the temporal sequence of information
◦ Limited capacity

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FACTORS AFFECTING MEMORY
 Psychologists have identified eleven factors that
influence memory process in humans.
◦ Ability to retain:
◦ Good health:
◦ Age of the learner:
◦ Maturity:
◦ Will to remember:
◦ Intelligence:
◦ Interest:
◦ Over learning:
◦ Speed of learning:
◦ Meaningfulness of the material:
◦ Sleep or rest:
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 FORGETTING
 Is an apparent loss of information already encoded and
stored in memory.
 THEORIES OF FORGETTING
Theories Descriptions (why forgetting occurs?)
Decay memory traces or engram fade with time if
they are not “accessed” now and then

Interference similar items of information interfere with one

another

Displacement/New new information entering memory can wipe

out old information
memory for old
Motivated block memories that are too threatening or
painful from consciousness 42
IMPROVING MEMORY
 Some of the major strategies used to improve
memory are:
◦ Pay Attention:
◦ Encode information in more than one way:
◦ Add meaning:
◦ Take your time:
◦ Over learn:
◦ Monitor your learning:

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 CHAPTER FIVE
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
 Meaning & Definition :
◦ The word motivation comes from the Latin word ‘mover‘,
which means to move. Motivation is what moves people to do
the things they do.
◦ Motivation is a factor by which activities are started, directed
and continued so that physical or psychological needs or
wants are met
 Based on their sources there are two kinds:
◦ Intrinsic motivation:
 a person acts because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in
some internal manner.
◦ Extrinsic motivation:
 a person acts because the action leads to an outcome that is
external to a person. 44
 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Theories Descriptions (how motivation occurs?)
Instinct Biologically or naturally determined/
controlled by hereditary factors

Drive-reduction Internal/psychological tension, drive; state of

imbalance

Arousal to maintain or increase excitement

Incentive desire to attain external rewards

Cognitive thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals

Humanistic a hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or

motives 45
MASLOW‘S HIERARCHIES OF NEEDS

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FRUSTRATION
 Definition
◦ The feeling of being blocked or thwarted in people
attempt to satisfy their needs is called frustration.

 Causes
 There are three sources of frustration.
1) Environmental factors
◦ physical or people which make impossible a person to reach a
goal.
2) Personal factors
◦ Setting goals beyond one’s capacity to perform.
3) Conflict between motives
◦ Is a situation that arises when two or more derives direct
behavior towards incompatible goals
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CONFLICT OF MOTIVES
 There are four basic types of conflict of motives.
1) Approach-approach:
◦ arise when we must choose only one of the two
desirable activities.
2) Avoidance-avoidance:
◦ arise when we must select one of two undesirable
alternatives.
3) Approach-avoidance:
o happen when a particular event or activity has both
attractive and unattractive features.
4) Multiple approach-avoidance:
 exist when two or more alternatives each have both
positive and negative features.
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EMOTIONS
 Definition
◦ Is the feeling aspect of consciousness, characterized by certain
physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the feeling to
the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings.

 Components
 There are three elements of emotion.
1) Physiological components:
◦ Is internal bodily changes associated with emotions, such as shifts in
heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, digestion etc.
2) Subjective Experience:
◦ personal experience we label as emotions. It is what it feels like to be
angry, sad, happy or elated.
3) Emotional Expression:
◦ An outward signs of internal bodily reactions. That is, the ways in
which emotions are expressed.
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 THEORIES OF EMOTION
 James- Lang Theory of Emotion

 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

 Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory

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 CHAPTER 6: PERSONALITY
 Meaning

◦ The word personality is derived from the word

‘persona‘, which has Greek and Latin roots and refers
to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors.
 Definition
 personality is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts,
feelings, and actions that characterize a person.
◦ But it is not character and temperament
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 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
1) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
 was formulated by Sigmund Freud.
 personality is formed within ourselves, arising from
basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics.
 people are in constant conflict between their biological
urges (drives) and the need to tame them.
 Personality has three parts which serves a different
function and develops at different times.
 The way these three parts of personality interact with
one another determines the personality of an
individual.

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 PERSONALITY STRUCTURES
 As mentioned earlier there are three structures of personality.
 Id (the It):
◦ Is the first and most primitive part of the personality.
◦ Is completely unconscious amoral part of the personality that exists
at birth, containing all of the basic biological drives; hunger, thirst,
sex, aggression, etc.
◦ Serves for pleasure principle, the desire for immediate satisfaction
of needs with no regard for the consequences―if it feels good, do
it.
 Ego (the I):
◦ is mostly conscious.
◦ works on the reality principle, which is the need to satisfy the
demands of the id and reduce libido only in ways that will not lead
to negative consequences.
◦ An Executive Director
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 Cont’d
 Superego (over the self):
◦ the moral center of personality.
◦ develops as a preschool-aged child learns the rules,
customs, and expectations of society.
◦ The Moral Watchdog
◦ There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and
the conscience.
 ego-ideal: Is the sum of all the correct and acceptable
behavior that the child has learned about from parents and
others in the society.
 Conscience: is part of the personality that makes people
pride when they do the right thing and guilt, or moral
anxiety when they do the wrong thing.
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DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Definition
◦ are unconscious tactics that either prevent
threatening material from surfacing or disguise it
when it does.

 Types
◦ Repression: banishing threatening thoughts, feelings,
and memories into the unconscious mind.
◦ Denial: refusal to recognize or acknowledge a
threatening situation.
◦ Regression: reverting to immature behaviors that
have relieved anxiety in the past.
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 Cont’d
◦ Rationalization: giving socially acceptable reasons for
one's inappropriate behavior.
◦ Displacement: expressing feelings toward a person
who is less threatening than the person who is the
true target of those feelings.
◦ Projection: attributing one's undesirable feelings to
other people.
◦ Reaction formation: a tendency to act in a manner
opposite to one's true feelings.
◦ Sublimation: expressing sexual or aggressive
behavior through indirect, socially acceptable outlets.

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 2) TRAIT THEORY
 Personality is a combination of stable internal
characteristics that people display consistently
over time and across situations.
 Assumptions:
◦ Personality traits are relatively stable, and therefore
predictable, over time. So a gentle person tends to stay
the same way across time.
◦ Personality traits are relatively stable across situations,
and they can explain why people act in predictable ways
in many different situations.
◦ People differ in how much of a particular personality trait
they possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits.
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THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OR THE BIG FIVE THEORY
 The five trait dimensions can be remembered by using
the acronym OCEAN, in which each of the letters is the
first letter of one of the five dimensions of personality.
◦ Openness: person‘s willingness to try new things and be open
to new experiences.
◦ Conscientiousness: person‘s organization and motivation,
those who are careful about being in places on time and careful
with belongings as well.
◦ Extraversion: outgoing and sociable, whereas introverts are
more solitary and dislike being the center of attention.
◦ Agreeableness: easygoing, friendly and pleasant.
◦ Neuroticism: emotional instability or stability.


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3) HUMANISTIC THEORY
 emphasize people‘s inherent goodness and their
tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning.
 Personality is made up of conscious, self-motivated
ability to change and improve, along with people‘s
unique creative impulses.
 focus on the things that make people uniquely human,
such as subjective emotions and the freedom to choose
one‘s destiny.

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 CARL ROGER’S THEORY
 Human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate
capacities and capabilities and to become everything that their
genetic potential will allow them to become.
 This striving for fulfillment (self-actualizing tendency) is
influenced by self concept and positive regard.
 Self Concept: is an image of oneself.
◦ Real Self: one‘s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and
abilities)
◦ Ideal Self: perception of what one should be or would like to be.
when the two are very close or similar to each other, people feel
competent and capable. 60
 Cont’d
 Positive Regard:
 Is warmth, affection, love, and respect that comes from the
significant others in people‘s experience.
 There are two kinds:
◦ Unconditioned Positive Regard:
 Is love, affection and respect with no strings attached.

◦ Conditional Positive Regard:

 Is love, affection, respect and warmth that depend, or seem to
depend, on doing what those people want.
Relatively unconditioned positive regard is better for people to be able
to explore fully all that they can achieve and become.
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Accounting

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
 Generally there are three main criteria: abnormality,
maladaptiveness, and personal distress.
◦ Abnormality
 is a behavior that deviates from the behavior of the typical person;
the norm.
◦ Maladaptiveness
 behavior which creates a social, personal and occupational
problem on those who exhibit it.
 behaviors seriously disrupt the day-to-day activities of individuals
that can increase the problem more.
◦ Personal Distress
 Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension and other
unpleasant emotions.
 negative emotional states
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CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
I) The Biological Perspective
 abnormalities in the working of chemicals in the brain,

called neurotransmitters.

II) Psychological Perspectives

 Psychoanalytic perspective

◦ Abnormal behavior is caused by the ego’s inability to manage the

conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the superego.
 Learning perspective
◦ Most mental and emotional disorders arise from inadequate or
inappropriate learning.
 Cognitive perspective
◦ The quality of our internal dialogue has profound effect on our
mental health.
◦ self-defeating thoughts lead to the development of negative
emotions and self-destructive behaviors.
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TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

 A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by

abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
 Psychopathology is the study of psychological
disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their
causes), and treatment.
 Some of psychological disorders are:
◦ mood disorder,
◦ anxiety disorder and
◦ personality disorder

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 MOOD DISORDER
 Is a distortion or inconsistency of general emotional
state or mood with one’s circumstances and interferes
ability to function.
 Is overall feelings of desperation and inactivity.

Types Descriptions
Major Depression. overall feelings of desperation and inactivity

Dysthymic Disorder a lesser, but more persistent form of

depression

Bipolar Disorder. characterized by periods of extreme highs and

extreme lows

Cyclothymia a lesser form of Bipolar Disorder

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 ANXIETY DISORDER
 Is an excessive fear toward situations or people.

Types Descriptions
Panic Disorder inappropriate intense feeling of fear or
discomfort
Agoraphobia fear of the marketplace
Specific Phobias avoidance of a specific situation, person,
place, or thing
Social Phobia Fear of group of people
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder occurs after a person is exposed to a
traumatic event where their life is threatened
Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Having extreme anxiety in nearly every part
of one’s life 67
 PERSONALITY DISORDER
 Is having a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking,
functioning and behaving.
Types Descriptions
Paranoid distrust and suspiciousness
Schizoid detachment from social norms and a restriction of emotions
Schizotypal discomfort in close relationships and eccentric thoughts and
behaviors
Antisocial disregard for the rights of others, including violation of these
rights and the failure to feel empathy
Borderline instability in personal relationships, including frequent bouts
of clinginess and affection and anger and resentment, often
cycling between these two extremes rapidly
Histrionic excessive attention seeking
68
Avoidant social inadequacies, low self-esteem, and hypersensitivity to
 TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
 Providing psychological treatment to individuals with
some kind of psychological problems is psychotherapy.
 Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms:
◦ medication,
◦ talk-therapy and
◦ combination of both
 Approaches
◦ Empathy and
◦ being non- judgmental
 Modalities
◦ one-on-one therapy and
◦ group therapy
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