Criteria in social research
Reliability – are measures consistent?
Replication/replicability – is study repeatable?
Validity – are conclusions well-founded
Types of validity
Measurement (or construct) validity – do measures reflect concepts?
Internal validity – are causal relations between variables real?
External validity – can results be generalized beyond the research setting?
Ecological validity – are findings applicable to everyday life?
Types of research design
1. Experimental
2. Cross-sectional
3. Longitudinal
4. Case study
5. Comparative
Experimental design elements
Random assignment of subjects to
experimental and control groups,
Pre-testing of both groups,
Independent variable manipulated; all other
variables held constant,
Post-testing of both groups,
Computation and analysis of group differences
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Classical experimental design
Key:
Obs = observation
Exp = experimental treatment
Figure 3.1 (manipulation of the independent
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T = timing
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Goleman
Emotional
Intelligenc Student's interaction
with school activities.
e Program
Student's relationship
with colleagues at
school.
Emotional intelligence
Student's relationship
Academic
with teachers in
Adjustment school.
Impairment students
Student's study
effectiveness.
Student's Perspective of
the School System.
Cross-sectional design
“A cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on more than one
case (usually quite a lot more than one) and at a single point in time in
order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in
connection with two or more variables (usually many more than two),
which are then examined to detect patterns of association.”
Key concept 3.6
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Cross-sectional design
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.2
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Comparative design
Using the same methods to compare two or more meaningfully
contrasting cases
Can be qualitative or quantitative
Often cross-cultural comparisons
Gallie’s (1978) study of the impact of automation on industrial workers
in England and France
Problem of translating research instruments and finding comparable
samples
• Includes multiple case studies
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A comparative design
Figure 3.5
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Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Evaluating comparative design
The characteristics are identical to those of cross-sectional
design, because the comparative design is essentially two or
more cross-sectional studies carried out at the same point in
time.
Comparing two or more cases can show circumstances in which a
particular theory will or will not hold.
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Longitudinal design
Survey of the same sample on more than one occasion
Typically used to map change in social research
In a panel study (e.g. BHPS – British Household Panel Survey – see
Research in focus 3.10 – annual survey since 1991)
Or a cohort study (e.g. NCDS – National Child Development Study –
see Research in focus 3.11 –sample of children born in 1958)
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The longitudinal design
Figure 3.4
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Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Case study design
detailed and intensive analysis of one case
e.g. a single community, school, family, person, event, or
organization
often involves qualitative research
case is the focus of location/setting just provides a background
types of case: critical, unique, exemplifying, revelatory, longitudinal
e.g. Holdaway (1982, 1983): ethnography of occupational culture in a
particular police force
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Evaluating case-study research
The biggest issue concerns external validity, because it is impossible
to generalize the findings.
Many case-writers argue, though, that the point of the research is to
examine particulars rather than attempt to generalize.
Cases may be extended longitudinally or through a comparative
design.
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Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Bringing research strategy and research design
together
Both quantitative and qualitative strategies can be executed through
any of the research designs covered in this chapter – although
experimentation is rarely used in qualitative research.
Survey research is the most typical form for quantitative strategies
Ethnographic studies are most typical of qualitative strategies.
Table 3.1
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Research Design Continuum
Research Design
Analytical Research Experimental Research
Descriptive Research Pre-designs
Reviews
Quasi-designs
Philosophical Case Study Survey
Historical True-designs
Cross-Sectional
Meta-Analyses
Longitudinal
Statistical-
Correlational designs
Analytical Research
Reviews
A critical account of present understanding
A meta-analysis is a quantitative method of
review
Historical Research
Accessing both primary (e.g. witnesses) or
secondary (e.g. literature) sources to document
past events
Philosophical Research
Organising existing evidence into a comprehensive
theoretical model
Descriptive Research
Case Study
Accrual of detailed information from an
individual
Refutable?
Survey
Cross-sectional: Status of a various groups at a
given point in time
Longitudinal: Status of a given group at various
points in time
Correlational: Relationships between variables
