2.3.

Proteins
Self Test:
1. Comment on the following statements (answer by saying true or false for each
statement and then elaborate)
a) all proteins are enzymes
b) enzymes initiate a chemical reaction
c) chemical reactions cannot take place in the body without enzymes
2. What are the elemental composition of proteins?
3. What are the physiological and structural roles of proteins?
4.Compare protein with nucleic acid
5. How is the primary structure of a protein determined?
2.3. Proteins

• Proteins are polymers of amino acids which are joined together by type of covalent bond
called peptide bond.

• Amino acids are compounds formed from carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and some
other elements like sulfur

• There are around 20 amino acids in nature which of which share same general
structure
• Each aa has central carbon atom which form four covalent bonds with H atom, amino
group (-NH2), a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) and variable group (-R)

• When one aa acid joins with the other, one water molecule is lost. The process is called
condensation.
Structure of amino acids, their difference occurs at the variable side chain (-R)
Structural level of protein
1. Primary structure: is simply the sequences, number and type of amino acid residues in
polypeptide.
2. Secondary structure: refers to particularly stable arrangements of amino acid residues
giving rise to coiled structural patterns forming alpha helix or beta plated sheet.
3. Tertiary structure: describes all aspects of the three-dimensional byfurther folding of a
polypeptide. At this structural level protein is functional.

4. Quaternary structure: occurred when two or more polypeptide subunits are united
together.
Functions of proteins

• Proteins make up about 15% of our body mass and involved in every function of our body.

For example, our muscles, skin and hair all are made of proteins.

our cells contain about 10,000 different proteins that provide:

structural support

 transport substances inside the cell and between cells. eg. transport proteins

 communicate signals within the cell and between cells

 speed up chemical reactions. Eg enzymes

control cell growth. Eg growth hormones

Defense the body against diseases. eg antibodies

2.4. Nucleic Acids

Self Test:

1. What is the role of nucleic acid?

2. What are the molecular composition of nucleotides?

3. Describe briefly the differences between DNA & RNA?

2.4. Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information

• they are polymers of nucleotides.

• There are two types of nucleic acids; DNA (deoxyribonucleic aids) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid)

• Nucleotides are formed from a phosphate, a nitrogenous base, and a 5 carbon

(pentose) sugar, phosphate + base + sugar= nucleotide
• Nitrogenous base combined with sugar molecule to form nucleoside (base + sugar=
nucleoside) and nucleoside combined with phosphate to give nucleotide (nucleoside
+ phosphate= nucleotide).

• The sugar in nucleic acids are deoxyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA

• There are five nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine,
Cytosine and Uracil)

• A and G are purines means they are with two rings but T, C & U are pyrimidine
means they are with single ring
• A, T, G and C are found in DNA but U replaces T in RNA

• DNA is double strand molecule where as RNA is single stranded

• Always A paired with T and G paired with C in DNA but in RNA A with U and
G with C
• The difference b/n DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Contains deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar

Double stranded molecule Single stranded molecule

Contains A, T, G and C bases A, U, G and C bases

A paired with T and G with C A paired with U and G with C

2.5. Vitamins

Self Test:

1. What are vitamins?

2. What are the roles of vitamins?

3. What are the water soluble and fat soluble vitamins?

2.5. Vitamins
• Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for metabolic
activities.

• Many vitamins help enzymes function well used as a coenzyme and prevent deficiency
diseases eg lack Vit A results in night blindness, Vit C scurvy, Vit D rickets etc

• There are various sources of vitamins

For example Vitamin D is made by cells in your skin which are activated by sun light,

some B vitamins and vitamin K are produced by bacteria living in the large intestine.

Most vitamins are obtained from balanced diet.

• Vitamins are categorized based on their solubility.

• Some vitamins are fat-soluble and can be stored in small quantities in the
liver and fatty tissues of the body. Eg Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and
Vitamin K

• most vitamins are water-soluble and cannot be stored in the body.

• Foods providing an adequate level of these vitamins on a regular basis.

Eg Thiamine, Riboflavin, Pyridoxine, Pantothenic Acid, Niacin, Biotin, Folic

Acid (Folacin), Vitamin B12, Ascorbic Acid, Inositol, Choline, p-Aminobenzoic
Acid and Lipoic Acid
2.6. Minerals

Self Test:

1. What are minerals?

2. What are the roles of minerals in maintaining homeostasis.?

2.6. Minerals

• Minerals are inorganic compounds required by the body in small amount,

• they are involved with metabolic functions. For example,

• iron is needed to make hemoglobin and it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is
delivered to body cells as blood circulates in the body
• Calcium and phosphorus are an important component of bones and teeth and is
involved with muscle and nerve functions
• Magnesium is an important component of the green pigment, chlorophyll, involved in
photosynthesis.
Minerals serve as cofactors for enzymes.

Minerals are obtained from balanced diet we eat

2.7. Water

Self Test:

• What are the physical and chemical properties of water, and their roles in
maintaining homeostasis.?
2.7. Water

 Water molecules are formed by covalent bonds that link two hydrogen (H)
atoms to one oxygen (O) atom

 It is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds,

• which is a tasteless and odorless, existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid

states.

 It has ability to dissolve and as a media for transportation of many other

substances.
Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the electrons of
the molecule tend to group closer to the oxygen than to the hydrogen atoms.

This means that even though the molecule as a whole is neutral, the oxygen
side has a slight negative charge while the hydrogen side has a slight positive
charge.

Therefore, water is said to be a "polar" molecule, which means that there

is an uneven distribution of electron density.

 Electronegativity describes the ability of atom to attract electrons to words

itself
• The electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge of
hydrogen atoms of one water molecule and the partial negative charge of
oxygen of another water molecules results in the formation of a hydrogen
bond
• Many properties of water are related with H- bonds. For example:
Ice floats: because hydrogen bonds hold water molecules farther apart in a solid
than liquid, therefore, the density decreases.

High boiling point: In water vapor, the molecules are too far apart for hydrogen
bonding to occur. This means that in order for us to boil water we must break all
the hydrogen bonds in liquid water.
Breaking those bonds takes energy, thus the high boiling point for water.
Cohesion is attraction of water molecules one another

 The attraction of one water molecule to another resulting from hydrogen bonding.

water clumps up to the tip of a tree despite being a liquid

Adhesion: is attraction of water molecules with non- water molecules (with

surface)

This also helps water to move up in long trees

Surface tension:

 Strong ordered film-like structure at interface of water

 cling of water molecules each other at the surface through H-bonding

 Helps small organisms to move on water surface