Research

Methodology
Meaning of Research
According to Clifford Woody
Research comprises
Defining and redefining problems
Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
Collecting, organising and evaluating data
Making deductions and reaching conclusions
Finally testing the conclusion
Objectives of Research
 To discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.
 To find out the hidden truth which has not been yet discovered.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it -

exploratory or formulative research studies

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group - descriptive research studies

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else - diagnostic research

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables -hypothesis-testing

Quantitative Research Designs
Quantitative Research Designs are either
descriptive (subjects usually measured
once) or experimental (subject measured
before and af ter treatment). It utilizes
more statistical tests to explain the nature,
characteristics, relationships, and
differences of variables (Chico & Matira
2016; Vizcarra 2003).
Descriptive Designs
Descriptive design is the most used method of
investigation in educational research
Descriptive studies are useful in obtaining the
prevailing status or condition of the problem
which are essential in understanding the past and
the future.
In this module, descriptive design is classified into
six.
1. descriptive-survey, 2. descriptive-normative
survey,3. descriptive- documentary,
4. descriptive-comparative,5. descriptive-
correlational; and 6 descriptive- evaluative.
1. Descriptive survey. This type is suitable
wherever the subjects vary among themselves,
and one is interested to know the extent to which
different conditions and situations are obtained
among these subjects. A survey is
useful in:
(1) providing the value of facts, and (2) focusing
attention on the
most important things to be reported
2. Descriptive-normative survey.
survey The term
normative is sometimes used because surveys are
frequently made to ascertain the normal or
typical condition for practice, or to compare local
tests results with a state or national norm.
3. Descriptive documentary. The documentary
method is used when data cannot be obtained
through questionnaires or observation. For
example, this is best demonstrated when a
researcher attempts to determine the relationship
between the extent of socialization and academic
performance of indigent students.
4. Descriptive comparative.
comparative This design is used to
compare and contrast representative samples
from two or more groups of subjects in relation to
certain designated variables that occur in normal
conditions. The results
obtained from these analyses are frequently not
generalized in a population.
5. Descriptive-correlational. This design is used to
investigate the direction and magnitude of relationships
among variables. Likewise, it is designed to study the
changes in one characteristics or phenomenon which
correspond to the changes in another or with one another.
A wide range of variable scores is
necessary to determine the existence of relationships.
Thus, the sample should reflect the full range of scores, if
possible, on the variables being measured.
6. Descriptive-evaluative. This design involves making a
judgment of worth or value. It allows the researcher to
delineate, obtain, and provide information that is useful
for judging decision alternatives when conducting a
program or service. It can be formative (process) or
summative (outcome).
Types of Research

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 CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
∆ Purpose clearly defined.
∆ Research process detailed.
∆ Research design thoroughly planned.
∆ High ethical standards applied.
∆ Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs
∆ Conclusions justified.
∆ Researcher’s experience reflected.
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH 13
 Systematic
 Logical
 Empirical
 Replicable
 Creative
 Use of multiple methods
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

 Applied vs. Fundamental Research
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
 Conceptual vs. Empirical Research
 Other types
 On time Research
 Longitudinal Research
 Diagnostic Research
 Exploratory Research
 Experimental Research 14
DESCRIPTIVE VS. ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
 Descriptive Research: The major purpose of description research is
description of affairs which exists at present.
 In social and business science , the word Ex post facto research is used
for descriptive studies.
 Researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
 Depends on surveys.
 Example,
which kind of people buying our product?

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Analytical Research is primarily concerned
with testing hypothesis and interpreting
relationships, by analyzing the facts or
information already available.

Example,
What will be the turn over of organization in
next year from the number last year?

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APPLIED VS FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

 Applied Research aims at finding solution for an

immediate problem facing society or business organization .
 vast scope in management ,economics, technology field.
 Ex. Marketing or Evaluation research

 Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or

pure research
 Discover new theory or ideas.
 Ex, like Newton’s contribution, Einstein's theory of
relativity.
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 QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Research is employed for
measuring the quantity or amount of a
particular phenomena by the use of statistical
analysis.

Qualitative Research is a non-quantitative

type of analysis which is aimed at finding out
the quality of a particular phenomenon.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE:

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

Inductive Deductive
Subjective Objective
Word form Focus on numbers
Case studies, content Statistical analysis
analysis
Probing Counting

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 CONCEPTUAL VS. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
 Conceptual Research is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Use in social science ,philosophy,psycology studies.
 Empirical Research is a data based research which
depends on experience or observation alone. It is
aimed at coming up with conclusions without due
regard for system and theory.

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Other types of research
 One-time Research – Research confined to a single
time period.

 Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over

several time periods.

 Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study

of an unfamiliar problem,
 About which the researcher has little or no
knowledge.
 It is aimed to gain familiarity with the problem, to
generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation
of the problem. Hence it is also known as 21
formularize research. Ex. Case study, pilot study.
 Experimental Research – It is designed to evaluate the
effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by
keeping the other variables constant or controlled.

 Historical Research – It is the study of past records and

other information sources, with a view to find the origin
and development of a phenomenon and to discover the
trends in the past, in order to understand the present and
to anticipate the future.

 Diagnostic Research – aims at identifying the causes of

a problem and the possible solutions for it.

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Significance of research

 Throws light on risks and uncertainty

 Identify alternative courses of action
 Helps in economic use of resources
 Helps in project identification
 Solves investment problems
 Solves pricing problems
 Solves allocation problems
 Solves various operational and planning problems of business
and industry
 Provides the basis for all government policies in our
economic system. 23
 For students, research means a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social
structure.
 For professionals in research, it may mean a
source of livelihood.
 For philosophers and thinkers, research means
the outlet for new ideas and insights.
 For literary men and women, research means
development of new styles and creative work.
 For analysts and intellectuals, research means
generalizations of new theories. 24
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Research Process
Research process consists of series
of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research and
the desired sequencing of these
steps.
 RESEARCH PROCESS
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts
Design
And
Research Collect Interpret
Define theories Formulate Analyse
(Including Data and
Research hypothesis Data
Sample report
Problem
Review Design)
F F
Previous
I Research III IV V VI VII
findings

II
F

F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward
Research Process
 (1) formulating the research problem;
 (2) extensive literature survey;
 (3) developing the hypothesis;
 (4) preparing the research design;
 (5) determining sample design;
 (6) collecting the data;
 (7) execution of the project;
 (8) analysis of data;
 (9) hypothesis testing;
 (10) generalizations and interpretation, and
 (11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal
write-up of conclusions reached.
Formulating the research
problem
 Two types of research problems, viz.,
 those which relate to states of nature
 those which relate to relationships between variables.
 Theformulation of a general topic into a specific
research problem is the first step
 understanding the problem thoroughly
 rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view.
Best way of understanding the problem
 To discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter.
 In an academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man
and has several research problems in mind.
 In private business units or in governmental
organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the
administrative agencies with whom the researcher can
discuss as to how the problem originally came about
and what considerations are involved in its possible
solutions.
Examine all available literature

 Two types of literature

 Conceptual literature
 the concepts and theories, and
 Empirical literature
 consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed.
 The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to
what data and other materials are available for operational
purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own
research problem in a meaningful context.
 Rephrasing Problem
 After this the researcher rephrases the problem into
analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in
as specific terms as possible. - Important task
 The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant
data from irrelevant ones.
 Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity
and validity of the background facts concerning the
problem.
 According to Professor W.A.
Neiswanger
 statement
of the objective is importance because it
determines
 the data which are to be collected,
 the characteristics of the data which are relevant,
 relations which are to be explored,
 The choice of techniques to be used in these
explorations and
 the form of the final report.
 Extensive literature survey
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written
down.
 It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree
to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee
or the Research Board for approval.
 At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem.
 For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem
 A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
Development of working
hypotheses
 After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses.
 A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis
for further research in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if
the hypothesis ultimately fails.
 In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role.
 Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track.
 It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of
the problem.
 It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data
analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing
working hypotheses?
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and
individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem
 Preparing the research design

Research design is the conceptual structure

within which research would be conducted.
The function of research design is to provide
for the collection of relevant information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
Research design is prepared
based on
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if
any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of
obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning
leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available
for the purpose.
Determining sample design:

 The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design.
 A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given population.
 E.g. the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a
sample design.
 Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
 With probability samples each element has a known probability
 of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability.
 Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples
are those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling
techniques
Types
 Deliberate Sampling - also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling.
 involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe.
 Convenience sampling
 When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the
ease of access
 E.g. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select
a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations.
 Judgment sampling
 the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population.
 E.g a judgment sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a
new method of teaching.
Simple random sampling

 also known as chance sampling or probability sampling

 where each and every item in the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the
possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
 E.g. if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a
universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or
numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and
conduct a lottery.
Systematic sampling

 In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to

select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one
side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as
systematic sampling.
 the selection process starts by picking some random point in
the list and then every nth element is selected until the
desired number is secured.
Stratified Sampling

 If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does

not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample.
 In this technique, the population is stratified into a number
of non overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample
items are selected from each stratum.
 If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple
random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification
and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified
random sampling.
Quota sampling

 In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples

from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers
are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the
actual selection of items for sample being left to the
interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling.
Cluster sampling and area
sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the
groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample.
 E.g. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card
holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to
be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could
be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might
then be selected for the sample randomly.
 The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to
ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural
potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated.
The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure
relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the
case of personal interviews.
Area sampling
 Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller
non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a
number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample.
 Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
Multi-stage sampling

 This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a

considerably large geographical area like an entire country.
 Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select
large primary sampling units such as states, then districts,
then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the
technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random
sampling.
Sequential sampling

 This is somewhat a complex sample design where the

ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the
basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
 This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling
plan in the context of statistical quality control.
Collecting the data
 There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data
which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
 Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey.
 If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which
he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.