AE 457

Crop Processing

Joseph Ofei DARKO (PhD)

[email protected] / +233 244234970
2017
 COURSE OUTLINE

2
 Course Outline
• Postharvest treatment of crops of major importance in
sub-tropical and tropical regions including:
 Food Crops
 Beverage crops
 Oil-producing crops
 Sugar-producing crops
 Stimulant crops
 Fibre crops
 Rubber-producing crops
3
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

4
 Course Objectives
• To introduce students to important sub-tropical
and tropical crops of economic importance.

• To introduce them to the various postharvest

treatments of these crops.

5
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

6
 Learning Outcomes
• The student should be able to identify sub-
tropical and tropical crops of economic
importance.

• The student should appreciate the postharvest

treatments in practice.
7
 COURSE ASSESSMENT

8
 Course Assessment

• Continuous Assessment

Class assignment, Mid-Semester: 30 %

• Final Semester Assessment

Examinations: 70%
9
 READING LIST

10
 Reading List
• Asiedu, J. J (1990). Processing tropical crops: A
technological approach. MacMillan Education:
ISBN-10: 0333547241

• D. L. Plucknett:

Small-scale processing and storage of tropical

crops.
11
 Reading List …
• Food Processing Africa:

Bimonthly digital magazine:

[email protected]

• Other relevant books and articles in the

University library.
12
 FOOD CROPS

13
 Food Crops

Food Crops are any plants intentionally

grown with the primary purpose of being

eaten by humans.

14
 Food Crops

Cereal Crops
Maize – Zea mays
Pearl millet – Pennisetum glaucum
Rice – Oryza sativa
Sorghum – Sorghum bicolor

15
 Food Crops

Maize Millet
16
 Food Crops

Rice Sorghum
17
 Food Crops …
Root and Tuber Crops
Cassava – Manihot esculenta
Sweet Potato – Ipomoea batatas
Taro – Colocasia spp.
Cocoyam – Xanthosoma saggitifolium
Yam – Dioscorea spp.

18
 Food Crops …

Cassava Sweet Potato

19
 Food Crops …

Taro Cocoyam
20
 Food Crops …

Yam Yam
21
 Food Crops …
Legumes
Bambara beans – Vigna subterranea
Common bean – Phaseolus vulgaris
Cowpea – Vigna unguiculata
Pigeon pea – Cajanus cajan
22
 Food Crops …

Bambara Beans Common Bean

23
 Food Crops …

Cowpeas Pigeon Peas

24
 Food Crops …
Leafy Vegetables
Amaranth – Amaranthus spp.
Roselle – Hibiscus sabdariffa
Vegetable jute – Corchorus olitorius

25
 Food Crops …

Amaranth Roselle
26
 Food Crops …

Vegetable Jute
27
 Food Crops …
Fruit Vegetables
Cucumber – Cucumis sativus
Eggplant – Solanum melongena
Pepper – Capsicum frutescens

28
 Food Crops …

Cucumber Eggplant
29
 Food Crops …

Pepper Pepper
30
 Food Crops …
Fruit Vegetables
Okra – Abelmoschus esculentus
Tomato – Lycopersicon esculentum
Watermelon – Citrullus vulgaris

31
 Food Crops …

Okra Tomato
32
 Food Crops …

Water Melon Water Melon

33
 Food Crops …
Root/Bulb Vegetables
Carrot – Daucus carota
Garlic – Allium sativum
Onion – Allium cepa
Shallots – Allium cepa
34
 Food Crops …

Carrot Garlic
35
 Food Crops …

Onion Shallots
36
 Food Crops …
Fruit Crops
Avocado - Persea americana
Citrus – Citrus spp.
Guava – Psidium guajava
Pear – Pyrus communis

37
 Food Crops …

Avocado Citrus
38
 Food Crops …

Guava Pear
39
 Food Crops …
Fruit Crops
Mango – Mangifera indica
Papaya – Carica papaya
Pineapple – Ananas comosus

40
 Food Crops …

Mango Papaya
41
 Food Crops …

Papaya Pineapple
42
 Oil-Producing Crops
Coconut – Cocos nucifera
Groundnut – Arachis hypogaea
Oil palm – Elaeis guineensis
Shea – Butyrospermum paradoxum
Soya bean – Glycine max
Sunflower – Helianthus annuus
43
 Oil-Producing Crops

Coconut Groundnut
44
 Oil-Producing Crops

Oil Palm Shea

45
 Oil-Producing Crops

Soybean Sunflower
46
 Beverage and Stimulant Crops
Cacao – Theobroma cacao
Coffee – Coffea spp.
Tea – Camellia sinensis

Tobacco – Nicotiana tabacum

47
 Beverage and Stimulant Crops

Cocoa Coffee
48
 Beverage and Stimulant Crops

Tea Tobacco

49
 Fibre Crops …
Cotton – Gossypium hirsitum
Kenaf – Hibiscus cannabinus
Sisal – Agave sisalana
Urena – Urena lobata

50
 Fibre Crops …

Cotton Kenaf
51
 Fibre Crops …

Sisal Urena
52
 Other Important Crops …
Sugar Crop
Sugar cane – Saccharum officinarum

Nut Crop
Cashew – Anacardium occidentale

53
 Other Important Crops …

Sugar Cane Cashew

54
 Other Important Crops …
Rubber Crop
Hevea – Hevea brasiliensis

Pesticide Crop
Neem – Azadirachta indica

55
 Other Important Crops …

Rubber Neem
56
 Other Important Crops …
Essential Oil Crop
Lemongrass – Cymbopogon spp

57
 Other Important Crops …

Lemon grass Lemon grass tea

58
 Crop Processing Principles

59
 Crop Processing Aim
• To handle and manipulate a raw material to

yield the highest possible net return after

processing – value addition.

60
 Crop Processing Aim …
• Initial quality of the raw material is

recognised as a prime consideration.

• Remember: “garbage in”, “garbage out”.

61
 Processing Aim …
• Adding value to crops

• Enhancing quality of products

• Production of more products

• Production of more durable products

62
 Processing Aim …
• Improving storability of crops

• Making convenient products for

transportation, and marketing

• Reducing wastage and loss

63
 Levels of Processing

64
 Levels of Processing
• Primary, Secondary or Tertiary processing

• Small-scale (Traditional), Medium-scale

(Intermediate) and Large-Scale (Industrial-
scale)

65
 Levels of Processing …
Small-Scale (Traditional) Processing

• Practised by small-scale farmers for personal

subsistence or for sale in nearby markets.

• Processing requires little investment.

• It is time-consuming and tedious.

66
 Levels of Processing …
Medium-Scale (Intermediate) Processing

• This is practised by individuals or a group

of small-scale processors pooling their
resources together.

67
 Levels of Processing
Medium-Scale (Intermediate) Processing

• Technology used by small-scale processors

with differences in the type and capacity
of equipment used.

68
 Levels of Processing …
Medium-Scale (Intermediate) Processing

• The raw materials are grown by the

processors themselves or are purchased on
contract from other farmers (outgrower
schemes).
69
 Levels of Processing …
Medium-Scale (Intermediate) Processing

• Located on the production site in order to

assure raw materials availability and
reduce cost of transport.

70
 Levels of Processing
Medium-Scale (Intermediate) Processing

• This system of processing can provide

quantities of processed products to urban
areas.

71
 Levels of Processing
Large-Scale (Industrial) Processing

• Highly mechanised

• Substantial supply of raw materials required

for economical operation.

• Large capital investment and high technical

72
and managerial skills.
 Some Processing Procedures

73
 Processing Procedures
These are general procedures used to improve,
maintain or change the quality of a product.

• controlling storage conditions

• killing or inhibiting destructive organisms and

• Improvement of physical characteristics.

74
 Processing Procedures …
Controlling storage conditions:

• Temperature in storage

• Relative Humidity in storage

• Time/Period of storage

75
 Processing Procedures …
Killing of inhibiting destructive organisms:

• Fumigation of products in storage

• Refrigeration of stored products

• Heating of stored products

76
 Processing Procedures …
Improvement of Physical Characteristics:

• Changing or maintaining moisture content

• Removing foreign and dissimilar materials

• Sorting into various fractions

77
 Processing Procedures …
Emphasis will be laid on the Improvement of
Physical Characteristics:

• Drying or dehydration

• Cleaning

• Classifying/Sorting into various fractions

• Transformation into other forms

78
 Processing Operations

79
 Processing Operations
Cleaning is the removal of foreign, dissimilar
and undesirable materials:

This operation involves washing, screening,

hand picking and other means (winnowing).

80
 Processing Operations

Winnowing
81
 Processing Operations …

Cleaning, sorting and partial or final

grading/classification of these products are
based on several parameters.

82
 Processing Operations …
The parameters include:

• Size

• Shape

• Specific gravity

• Surface characters

83
The first three are very important.
 Washing

84
 Washing

Fruits, vegetables and nuts are washed to

remove dirt, spray residues and other foreign

materials.

85
 Washing …
Washing (batch or continuous) is carried out by
any of the combinations of:
• Soaking
• Water sprays
• Rotary drums
• Brush washers
• Shuffle or shaker washers

86
 Sorting

87
 Sorting …
This is the separation of cleaned
materials/products into various quality
fractions defined by:
• Size
• Shape
• Density
• Colour
88
 Sorting …
Fruits and vegetables are sorting on the basis
of colour, damage and size.

• Colour and damage are sorted manually

• Colour is sorted automatically by the magic

eye
89
 Sorting …
Sorting procedures for fruits and vegetables may
involve:

• Screens

• Diverging belts

• Roller sorters

90 • Weight sorters
 Sorting …

91
 Grading

92
 Grading

• Classification of material on the basis of

commercial value and usage

• It is dependent on more factors than in

physical sorting
93
 Grading …
• Grade factors apply in various combinations
to all farm products

• They may be classified as physical, chemical,

and biological

94
 Grade Factors

95
 Grade Factors – Physical Characteristics
• Moisture Content
• Unit Size
• Unit Weight
• Texture
• Colour
• Foreign Matter
• Shape
96
 Grade Factors – Chemical Characteristics

• Chemical Composition (Analysis)

• Rancidity, free fatty acids (for fat-

containing materials)

• Odour (aroma), flavour, and taste

97
 Grade Factors – Biological Characteristics

• Germination

• Type and amount of insect damage.

• Type and amount of mould damage

• Bacterial Count

98
 Processing and Preservation Methods

99
 Some Processing Methods
• Blanching
• Canning
• Extraction
• Freezing
• Drying
• Dehydration

100
 Some Preservation Methods
• Pickling
• Salting
• Fermentation
• Smoking
• Pasteurisation
• Asepsis

101
 Processing Equipment

102
 Some Processing Equipment
• Peelers - Peeling

• Chipping machines - Chipping

• Grating machines - Grating

• Roasters - Roasting

• Dryer - Drying
103 • Digesters - Digestion
 Processing Examples
Cereal and Legume Crops

• Drying

• Milling

• Grinding

104
 Processing Examples
Root and Tuber Crops

• Chipping – Chips

• Grating – Grated mash

• Drying – Dried chips, etc.

• Starch extraction - Starch

105
 Processing Examples
Fruit Crops

• Juice extraction – Fruit Juices

• Fresh cuts – Pineapple cuts and slices

106
 Processing Examples
Vegetable Crops

• Chopping

• Drying

• Pickling

107
 Processing of Selected Crops
Oil Crops

• Oil extraction

Beverage Crops

• Fermentation

• Drying
108
 Processing of Selected Crops
Fibre Crops

• Retting

Medicinal Crops

• Drying

• Milling

109
• Extraction
 Size Reduction

110
 Size Reduction
• The reduction in size of agricultural materials
brought about by mechanical means without a
change in chemical properties of the material

111
 Size Reduction …
• Uniformity in size and shape of the individual
grains or units of the end product is usually
desired but seldom achieved

112
 Size Reduction …
Size reduction includes
• Cutting
• Crushing
• Grinding
• Milling
113
 Size Reduction …
Examples include
• Cutting fruits/vegetables for canning
• Shredding sweet potatoes for drying
• Chopping corn fodder
• Milling of flour

114
 Milling

115
 Milling

Milling is a trade name used relative to the

reduction of grain into meal or flour.

116
 Milling …
As an overall process, it includes:

• Size reduction

• Scarifying

• Sorting

• Mixing
117
 Milling …
Milling also includes:

• Hulling

• Polishing

• Sorting

• Certain chemical reactions

118
 Size Reduction Procedures

119
 Size Reduction Procedures
The size of agricultural products is reduced by

• Cutting

• Crushing

• Shearing

120
 Size Reduction Procedures
Cutting

Separation or reduction produced by pushing or

forcing a thin, sharp knife through the material to
be reduced

Minimum rupture of the reduced particles results

121
 Size Reduction Procedures
Crushing

• Reduction by applying a force to the unit to be

reduced in excess of its strength

• Failure results by rupture of the material in many

directions

• Resulting particles are irregular in shape and size

122
 Size Reduction Procedures
Shearing

• A combination of cutting and crushing

• If shearing edge is thin and sharp,

performance approaches cutting

• Thick, dull shearing edge performs more as a

crusher
123
 Size Reduction Devices

124
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Hammer mills

125
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Hammer mills …

They consume energy in two ways:

• wind generated by the hammers
• energy for breaking up the material

It is assumed to reduce size by impact

126
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Hammer mills …

• Size reduction by impact between the material

and the hammers

• Some shear between screen or other parts of

the mill and the particles

127
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Advantages of Hammer mills

• Simplicity

• Versatility

• Freedom from significant damage due to foreign

objects

128
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Advantages of Hammer mills …

• Freedom from damage when operating empty

• Hammer wear does not materially reduce its

efficiency

129
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Disadvantages of Hammer mills

• Inability to produce a uniform grind

• High power requirements (due to generated

wind)

130
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Hammer mills …
• Speed hammer mills can be changed
• Size of ground material depends on size of
openings on screens
• Size also depends on the impact of the hammer
on the material

Impact = f(velocity)
131
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Burr/Plate Mills

132
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Burr/Plate Mills …

• Two roughened plates, one stationary, the other

rotating

• Material is fed between the plates and is reduced

by crushing and shear

133
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Burr/Plate Mills …

• When fed slowly so that flutes are not filled,

reduction is probably mainly by shear

• With faster feed and flutes filled, both shear and

crushing exist

134
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Burr/Plate Mills …

• Overfeeding reduces the effectiveness of the

grinder and excessive heating results

135
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Advantages of Burr/Plate Mills

• Low initial cost

• Products may be relatively uniform

• Power requirements may be low

136
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Disadvantages of Burr/Plate Mills

• Foreign objects may cause breakage

• Operating empty may cause excessive burr/plate

wear

• Worn burrs/plates yield poor results

137
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Crushers

138
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Crushers…

• Used to grind materials which are needed in very

coarse form, for example, 1 cm diameter

• Not used extensively in agricultural operations

139
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Roller Mills

140
 Some Size Reduction Devices
Roller Mills …

• Roller mills out of use for farm grinding

• The reason is the demand for a finer product than

can be produced by rolls

• The cost of roller mills is higher than burr mills but

lower than hammer mills
141
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices

142
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
A size reducer operating ideally has the following
characteristics:

• Uniformity of product size

• Minimum temperature rise during reduction

• Minimum power requirement and

• Trouble-free operation
143
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
Uniformity of Size

• Burr mills produce a more uniform size

• Random path of feed in the hammer mill and the

nature of reduction (impact) make its products less
uniform in size

144
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
Uniformity of Size …

• Performance of burr mill will depend upon type of

burrs, number of times a grain comes into contact
with the burrs, and nature of the path

145
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices

Minimum Temperature Rise

• Energy for grinding is dissipated as heat
• Temperature of the ground product, the mill,
and the ambient air raised
• Some heat energy is lost in vapourising
moisture

146
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
Minimum Temperature Rise …
• Temperatures may rise 28 C or more with fibrous
materials such as oats, ear corn in a burr mill, for
fine grind
• The hammer mill produces a cooler product
because of the large amount of air circulating
with the ground grain

147
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices

Minimum Temperature Rise …

• High temperatures contribute to decomposition

of high moisture material

148
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
Minimum Power Requirement
The exact power required is difficult to
determine. It is affected by:
• Type of material
• Moisture Content
• Fineness of grinding, and
• Type and Condition of Mill

149
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
Minimum Power Requirement

More power is required for grinding

• fibrous than crystalline materials
• moist than dry materials

Hammer mills require more power when the product

150
must be elevated
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices
Minimum Power Requirement …

• Useful power, difference between horsepower

consumed and horsepower for running the mill
empty is a small percentage of the input

151
 Characteristics of Size Reduction Devices

Trouble-free Operation

Except when mills have to be shut down for

routine maintenance and for parts to be replaced,
it is not expected that the mill should break down
unexpectedly.
152
 Determination of Size and Shape

153
 SIZE DETERMINATION
Reduced materials are placed in three groups or
classes based on size:

• Dimension range

• Sieve range

• Microscopic range

The sieve range is important to agriculture

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154
 DIMENSION RANGE
• Particles or units which can be accurately
measured and easily seen with minimum
measurement approximately (>3.2 mm). Examples
are
• diced fruit and vegetables
• chopped forage
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155
 SIEVE RANGE
• Particles with minimum dimension range of 3.2 -
0.07 mm approximately. Examples are granular
materials
• ground feed
• commercial fertiliser

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156
 MICROSCOPIC RANGE
• Particles with minimum dimension range less than
0.07 mm. Examples are
• chemical powders
• dust
• Portland cement
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157
 Tyler Sieves

158
 TYLER SIEVE SET

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159
 TYLER SIEVES
• Simplest method for placing granular materials in
class 2 is screening through a set of Tyler sieves

• Opening size is based on a 200‑mesh sieve, each

opening is 1.414 times as large as the previous one

• With every other screen omitted, each opening will

be twice the previous one
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160
 TYLER SIEVES
MESH SIZE % RETAINED (P) MULTIPLYING PRODUCT OF (P)
FACTOR (F) AND (F)
8.000 0 7 0
4.000 5 6 30
2.000 16 5 80
1.000 20 4 80
0.500 24 3 72
0.250 25 2 50
0.125 10 1 10
PAN 0 0 0
TOTAL 100 322
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161
 TYLER SIEVES
FINENESS MODULUS
• The sum of the weight fractions retained
above each sieve in the set
• The 8, 4, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 mm mesh
sieves are used in the set
• Fineness modulus indicates the uniformity of
grind in the resultant product
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162
 TYLER SIEVES
Fineness Modulus (FM)
• FM = Σ(P x F)
100

• Fineness Modulus = 322 = 3.22

100

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163
 TYLER SIEVES
Average size of grain (D)
• The average size of grain, D, indicated by a modulus
number FM can be calculated from the following
equation:

• D = (0.0041 x 2FM) x 25.4 mm

• D = (0.0041 x 23.22) x 25.4 mm= 0.97mm

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164
 TYLER SIEVES
Uniformity Index
• Fineness modulus gives an average size, but does
not indicate the distribution of fines and coarses in
the resultant product

• It indicates the relative portions of coarse,

medium, and fine materials not indicated by the
fineness modulus
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165
 TYLER SIEVES
MESH SIZE % RETAINED MULTIPLYING PRODUCT OF UNIFORMITY
(P) FACTOR (F) (P) AND (F) INDEX
8.000 0 7 0
4.000 5 6 30
2.000 16 5 80 21
1.000 20 4 80
0.500 24 3 72 44
0.250 25 2 50
0.125 10 1 10
PAN 0 0 0 35
TOTAL 100 322
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166
 TYLER SIEVES
Uniformity Index (UI)
• UI = 21 : 44 : 35
10 10 10

= 2.1 : 4.4 : 3.5

= 2 : 4 : 4
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167
 TYLER SIEVES
EXERCISE:

• List the three classes of reduced materials and

explain their significance to food and feed
constituents in Ghana.

• Why is the sieve range so important?

168
• What constitutes a complete set of Tyler Sieves?
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 Solution

169
 TYLER SIEVES
MESH SIZE % RETAINED MULTIPLYING PRODUCT OF UNIFORMITY
(P) FACTOR (F) (P) AND (F) INDEX
8.000 0 7 0
4.000 10 6 60
2.000 25 5 125 35
1.000 24 4 96
0.500 20 3 60 44
0.250 16 2 32
0.125 5 1 5
PAN 0 0 0 21
TOTAL
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100 378
170
 TYLER SIEVES
Fineness Modulus (FM)
• FM = PF
100

• Fineness Modulus = 378 = 3.78

100

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171
 TYLER SIEVES
Average size of grain (D)
• The average size of grain, D, indicated by a modulus
number FM can be calculated from the following
equation:

• D = (0.0041 x 2FM) x 25.4 mm

• D = (0.0041 x 23.78) x 25.4 mm= 1.43 mm

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172
 TYLER SIEVES
Uniformity Index (UI)
• UI = 35 : 44 : 21
10 10 10

= 3.5 : 4.4 : 2.1

= 4 : 4 : 2
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173
 Size Reducer Factors

174
 A size reducer operating ideally has the following
characteristics:

• Uniformity of product size

• Minimum temperature rise during reduction

• Minimum power requirement and

• Trouble-free operation
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175
 UNIFORMITY OF SIZE
Burr mills produce a more uniform size

In hammer mill, random feed path/nature of

reduction make products not uniform in size

Performance of burr mill depends on burr type,

number of passes across the burrs and path

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176
 MINIMUM TEMPERATURE RISE
Energy for grinding is dissipated as heat

Temperature of the ground product, the mill,

and the ambient air raised

Some heat energy is lost in vapourising

moisture

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177
 MINIMUM TEMPERATURE RISE
Temperatures may rise 28 C or more with fibrous
materials such as oats, ear corn in a burr mill, for
fine grind

The hammer mill produces a cooler product

because of the large amount of air circulating with
the ground grain
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178
 MINIMUM TEMPERATURE RISE
High temperatures contribute to decomposition
of high moisture material

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179
 TEMPERATURE RISE - GRINDING
Material Fineness Modulus Temperature Rise °C
Oats* 2.73 28.00
Barley* 3.66 4.50
Shelled corn* 3.96 4.00
Ear corn* 3.07 8.00
Oats** 2.70 10.00
Barley** 3.66 1.10
Shelled corn** 3.13 5.50
Ear corn** 3.05 7.00
*Burr/Plate Mill **Hammer mill
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180
 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT
• The exact power required is difficult to
determine. It is affected by:
• Type of material
• Moisture Content
• Fineness of grinding, and

181
• Type and Condition of Mill
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 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT
• More power is required for grinding
• fibrous than crystalline materials
• moist than dry materials

• Hammer mills require more power when the

product must be elevated

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182
 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT
• Power required for running the mill empty
increases swiftly as the speed increases

• Power required to operate the elevating fan varies

as the cube of the speed:

P is proportional to S³

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183
 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT
• By running the fan at two different speeds,
4400 rpm and 2200 rpm requires two power
ratings:

P1 = 4400³ = (8.52 x 1010)

P2 = 2200³ = (1.06 x 1010)

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184
 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT

• By doubling the speed from 2200 rpm to 4400

rpm one requires 8 times more power

• The empty horsepower requirement of a mill

without a fan is a straight line function

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185
 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT

• Useful power, difference between horsepower

consumed and horsepower for running the mill
empty is a small percentage of the input

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186
 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT
• Power consumption can be reduced by operating
below rated speed than above it. capacity is
limited by power available. In order to maintain
higher speeds feeding rates can be reduced so that
a larger portion of the available power can be used
for maintaining mill speed.
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 MINIMUM POWER REQUIREMENT
• Useful power, difference between horsepower
consumed and horsepower for running the mill
empty is a small percentage of the input

• Power consumption can be reduced by operating

below rated speed than above it, capacity is
limited by power available.

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 TROUBLE-FREE OPERATION

Except when mills have to be shut down for routine

maintenance and for parts to be replaced, it is not
expected that the mill should break down unexpectedly

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 DESIRABLE FEATURES OF GRAIN
• Low plastic and elastic deformation

• Low moisture for impact (hammer mills)

• High moisture content for impact (roller mills)

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 Mixing

191
 MIXING
• HORIZONTAL MIXER

• Advantages
• Can deal with wet mixes as well as dry materials
• Provided suitable building layout is available,
filling, mixing and emptying can be quickly
carried out
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 MIXING
• Disadvantages
• Cost twice as much as vertical mixers
• At large capacities they cannot be used for storage
before and after the mixing operation
• For larger sizes, special loading and unloading
devices should be used
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 MIXING

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 MIXING
• VERTICAL MIXER

• Advantages

• Low cost

• Possible to use bottom of mixer as storage device with

tangential thing. Example velocity of air should be <
0.1 m/s.
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 MIXING
• VERTICAL MIXER

• Disadvantages

• Buildings must have at least a height of 2.50 - 3.0 m.

• Complete emptying is not achieved. (This is not

important in small ones).

• Continuous flow mixing. Used in large mixing.

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 Processing of Selected Crops

197
 Processing of Selected Crops
The following section describes the processing of

some selected crops with use of simplified flow

charts. There are some common steps which the

student is encouraged to identify.

198
 Processing of Selected Crops
These include
• Harvesting
• Sorting
• Washing
• Packaging
• Storage and
• Marketing
199
 Processing of Selected Crops
Some selected crops and their products:

• Cassava – Gari, High Quality Flour, Chips

• Vegetables – Okro, Pepper and Tomato

• Oil Palm – Palm Oil, Palm Kernel Oil

• Paddy Rice – Milled Rice

200
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

201
 Harvesting
Sorting of
of Cassava Peeling Washing Grating
Roots
Roots

Sifting/ Breaking of Bagging of

Pressing Fermenting
Sieving Cake mash

Sifting
Roasting Cooling GARI Packaging
Sieving

Storage

Figure 1: Processing of Cassava into Gari

202
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Harvesting
• Harvesting of cassava is commonly by manual means;
hoes, cutlasses, machetes, and any available digging
instruments. They work well when the soil is soft.

• There is a rear-mounted tractor cassava lifting

equipment for commercial cassava farms.

203
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

204
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

Sorting of cassava roots

• Cassava roots are then sorted into fresh, mature,

undamaged roots without any rots. Good quality
cassava roots produce good quality gari.
Garbage in, garbage out.
205
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Peeling of Cassava Roots

• The roots are peeled by hand using knives,

cutlasses and other sharp instruments. There
are other simple peeling instruments available.

206
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

207
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Washing of Roots

• The roots must be washed in clean (potable)

water. The cleaning by washing is aimed at
removing any left-over peels, sand, and dirt. This
stage is very crucial since no more cleaning will
take place from this stage onwards.
208
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Grating of cassava roots

• Grating with mechanical graters with an engine

or motor is now common. The former is
convenient where electricity is not available.

• The grater must be cleaned before and after

grating cassava roots.
209
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Bagging of Cassava mash

• Generally, the mash is put into bags whose ends

are tied tightly and held down by heavy objects
including stones and wooden logs.

• A bagging stand facilitates ease of filling the

bags.
210
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

211
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

212
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Fermentation of the Cassava Mash

• The bagged mash is allowed to ferment for 3-5

days.

• Fermentation detoxifies the mash. The cyanide

breaks down to produce a gas, hydrocyanic acid,
which escapes into the air.
213
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Fermentation of the Cassava Mash

• Distinctive flavours and aromas are also produced

during this stage as some of the carbohydrates
are converted to alcohol and aromatic compounds.

• It is recommended to carry out fermentation in

bitter cassava roots.
214
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Pressing of fermented mash

• The fermented mash is dewatered by pressing

with various presses - mechanical or hydraulic.

• The mechanical screw presses are single

vertical or double horizontal bar screw presses.
215
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

216
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Cake breaking and sifting/sieving

• The pressed cake is broken into small pieces and

sifted with wooden, plastic, or stainless steel
sieves to remove fibrous materials and produce
uniform sized particles for roasting.

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 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Roasting/Frying/Toasting/Garifying/Parching

• Roasting takes place in a large shallow stainless

steel pan over a fire stirring constantly with a
piece of calabash, plastic, wooden paddle or
stainless steel stirrer until the mash is gelatinized
and dry.
218
 Processing of Cassava into Gari

219
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Cooling

• When the mash is well cooked, it is allowed to cool down to

room temperature.

Sifting/Sieving

• The gari is sieved to obtain uniformly sized granules

acceptable to consumers.
220
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Packaging

• Gari is packaged in large plastic lined

polypropylene sacks of about 50 kg. They can
also be packaged in smaller units of 1, 5, 10 kg in
plastic bags.

221
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Labeling

• Packages must be well labelled indicating, at

least, date produced, weight, and contact
address. The label will serve as an
advertisement and also encourage adherence to
quality standards.
222
 Processing of Cassava into Gari
Storage
• Gari should be stored in a cool dry place.

Marketing

• The marketing of gari comes in different sizes.

Sacks of gari are sold usually wholesale while
smaller packages are sold at the retail level.
223
 Processing of Cassava into Chips

224
 Harvesting
Sorting of Roots Peeling Washing
Cassava Roots

CASSAVA Cooling Drying

Chipping
CHIPS Slicing

Packaging Storage Marketing

Figure 2: Processing of Cassava into Chips

225
226
 Processing of Cassava into High Quality Flour

227
 Processing of Cassava into Starch

229
 Harvesting Grating
Sorting of Roots Peeling of Roots Washing
Cassava Roots Milling

Mixing with
Drying Pressing Decanting Extraction
Water

CASSAVA
Milling Packaging Storage Marketing
STARCH

Figure 4: Processing of Cassava into Starch

230
 Processing of Oil Palm into Palm Oil

231
 Harvesting of Bunch Bunch Bunch
Fruit Digestion
Bunches Reception Sterilisation Threshing

Oil
Oil Refining Oil Drying PALM OIL Clarification
Pulp Pressing

Packaging Storage Marketing

232
Figure 5: Processing of Oil Palm into Palm Oil
233
 Processing of Palm nuts into Palm Kernel Oil

234
 Palm nut Drying of Cracking of Kernel Cleaning of
recovery Nuts nuts Separation Kernels

Size
Screw Steam Flaking of
Filtration Reduction of
Pressing Conditioning Kernels
Kernels

Palm Kernel
Packaging Storage Marketing
Oil

Figure 6: Processing of Palm Nuts into Palm Kernel Oil

235
 Processing of Paddy into Milled Rice

236
 Harvest Paddy Threshing of
Field Pre-Drying PADDY Winnowing
Rice Panicles

Drying of Soaking of
Milling Destoning Parboiling
Parboiled Paddy Paddy

MILLED Packaging Storage Marketing

Polishing
RICE

Figure 7: Processing Paddy into Milled Rice

237
 Processing of Okra into Dried Slices
and Powder

238
 Harvesting of Cutting
Sorting of Okro Washing Blanching
Okro Slicing

OKRO Milling
OKRO Drying
Draining of
POWDER SLICES Water

Packaging Storage Marketing

Figure 8: Processing of Okra into dried slices and powder

239
 Processing of Pepper into Dried Corns and
Powder

240
 Harvesting of
Sorting of Pepper Washing Blanching
Pepper

Milling
DRIED Drying
Draining of
PEPPER Water

DRY
PEPPER Packaging Storage Marketing
POWDER

Figure 9: Processing of pepper into dried pepper corns and powder

241
 Processing of Pepper into Paste

242
 Harvesting of Sorting of Draining of
Washing Blanching
Pepper Pepper Water

Sterilise Bottled Package in glass Heat to remove Milling

Cooling
Paste bottles moisture Grinding

PEPPER Storage Marketing

PASTE

Figure 10: Processing of pepper into paste

243
 Processing of Tomato into Paste

244
 Harvesting of Sorting of Draining of
Washing Blanching
Tomato Tomato Water

Sterilise Bottled Package in glass Heat to remove Milling

Cooling
Paste bottles moisture Grinding

TOMATO
Storage Marketing
PASTE

Figure 11: Processing of tomato into paste

245
 Processing of Tomato into Dried Slices and
Powder

246
 Harvesting of Sorting of Cutting
Washing Blanching
Tomato Tomato Slicing

DRY DRIED
TOMATO Draining of
Milling TOMATO Drying
Water
POWDER SLICES

Packaging Storage Marketing

Figure 12: Processing of tomato into dried slices

and powder
247
 Conclusion
• Students have been introduced to important
sub-tropical and tropical crops of economic
importance.

• They have been introduced also processing

principles and postharvest treatments some of
these crops.
248
THANK YOU