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Mathematical Reasoning

The document discusses mathematical induction and recursion. It explains the principle of mathematical induction, including the basis step and inductive step. It also discusses recursively defined sequences, functions, sets, and algorithms.

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20 views

Mathematical Reasoning

The document discusses mathematical induction and recursion. It explains the principle of mathematical induction, including the basis step and inductive step. It also discusses recursively defined sequences, functions, sets, and algorithms.

Uploaded by

gbikorno
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 33

Induction Method

CSE 1107
Discrete Mathematics

M.M.A. Hashem, PhD


Professor
Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering
April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET
& Technology (KUET) 1

Khulna 9203, Bangladesh


Let’s proceed to…

Mathematical Reasoning

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 2


Mathematical Reasoning

We need mathematical reasoning to


• determine whether a mathematical argument is
correct or incorrect and
• construct mathematical arguments.

Mathematical reasoning is not only important for


conducting proofs and program verification, but
also for artificial intelligence systems (drawing
inferencs).

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 3


Induction

The principle of mathematical induction is a


useful tool for proving that a certain predicate is
true for all natural numbers.

It cannot be used to discover theorems, but only to


prove them.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 4


Induction
If we have a propositional function P(n), and we
want to prove that P(n) is true for any natural
number n, we do the following:

• Show that P(0) is true.


(basis step)
• Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.
(conclusion)

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 5


Induction
Example:

Show that n < 2n for all positive integers n.

Let P(n) be the proposition “n < 2 n.”

1. Show that P(1) is true.


(basis step)

P(1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 6


Induction
2. Show that if P(n) is true, then P(n + 1) is true.
(inductive step)

Assume that n < 2n is true.


We need to show that P(n + 1) is true, i.e.
n + 1 < 2n+1

We start from n < 2n:


n + 1 < 2n + 1  2n + 2n = 2n+1
Therefore, if n < 2n then n + 1 < 2n+1

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 7


Induction
3. Then P(n) must be true for any positive
integer.
(conclusion)

n < 2n is true for any positive integer.

End of proof.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 8


Induction
Another Example (“Gauss”):

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2

1. Show that P(0) is true.


(basis step)

For n = 0 we get 0 = 0. True.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 9


Induction
2. Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2
1 + 2 + … + n + (n + 1) = n (n + 1)/2 + (n + 1)
= (n + 1) (n/2 + 1)
= (n + 1) (n + 2)/2
= (n + 1) ((n + 1) +
1)/2

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 10


Induction

3. Then P(n) must be true for any nN.


(conclusion)

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2 is true for all nN.

End of proof.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 11


Induction
There is another proof technique that is very similar
to the principle of mathematical induction.

It is called the second principle of mathematical


induction.

It can be used to prove that a propositional function


P(n) is true for any natural number n.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 12


Induction
The second principle of mathematical induction:

• Show that P(0) is true.


(basis step)
• Show that if P(0) and P(1) and … and P(n),
then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.
(conclusion)

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 13


Induction
Example:
Show that every integer greater than 1 can be
written as the product of primes.

• Show that P(2) is true.


(basis step)

2 is the product of one prime: itself.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 14


Induction
• Show that if P(2) and P(3) and … and P(n),
then P(n + 1) for any nN. (inductive step)
Two possible cases:
• If (n + 1) is prime, then obviously P(n + 1) is true.
• If (n + 1) is composite, it can be written as the
product of two integers a and b such that
2  a  b < n + 1.
By the induction hypothesis, both a and b can be
written as the product of primes.
Therefore, n + 1 = ab can be written as the product
of primes.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 15


Induction

• Then P(n) must be true for any nN with n > 1.


(conclusion)

End of proof.

We have shown that every integer greater than 1


can be written as the product of primes.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 16


Recursive Definitions
Recursion is a principle closely related to
mathematical induction.

In a recursive definition, an object is defined in


terms of itself.

We can recursively define sequences, functions


and sets.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 17


Recursively Defined Sequences
Example:

The sequence {an} of powers of 2 is given by


an = 2n for n = 0, 1, 2, … .

The same sequence can also be defined


recursively:

a0 = 1
an+1 = 2an for n = 0, 1, 2, …

Obviously, induction and recursion are similar


principles.
April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 18
Recursively Defined Functions
We can use the following method to define a
function with the natural numbers as its domain:

1. Specify the value of the function at zero.


2. Give a rule for finding its value at any integer
from its values at smaller integers.

Such a definition is called recursive or inductive


definition.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 19


Recursively Defined Functions
Example:

f(0) = 3
f(n + 1) = 2f(n) + 3
f(0) = 3
f(1) = 2f(0) + 3 = 23 + 3 = 9
f(2) = 2f(1) + 3 = 29 + 3 = 21
f(3) = 2f(2) + 3 = 221 + 3 = 45
f(4) = 2f(3) + 3 = 245 + 3 = 93

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 20


Recursively Defined Functions
How can we recursively define the factorial
function f(n) = n! ?

f(0) = 1
f(n + 1) = (n + 1)f(n)
f(0) = 1
f(1) = 1f(0) = 11 = 1
f(2) = 2f(1) = 21 = 2
f(3) = 3f(2) = 32 = 6
f(4) = 4f(3) = 46 = 24

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 21


Recursively Defined Functions
A famous example: The Fibonacci numbers
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1
f(n) = f(n – 1) + f(n - 2)
f(0) = 0
f(1) = 1
f(2) = f(1) + f(0) = 1 + 0 = 1
f(3) = f(2) + f(1) = 1 + 1 = 2
f(4) = f(3) + f(2) = 2 + 1 = 3
f(5) = f(4) + f(3) = 3 + 2 = 5
f(6) = f(5) + f(4) = 5 + 3 = 8
April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 22
Recursively Defined Sets
If we want to recursively define a set, we need to
provide two things:
• an initial set of elements,
• rules for the construction of additional
elements from elements in the set.

Example: Let S be recursively defined by:


3S
(x + y)  S if (x  S) and (y  S)
S is the set of positive integers divisible by 3.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 23


Recursively Defined Sets
Proof:

Let A be the set of all positive integers divisible by 3.

To show that A = S, we must show that


A  S and S  A.

Part I: To prove that A  S, we must show that every


positive integer divisible by 3 is in S.

We will use mathematical induction to show this.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 24


Recursively Defined Sets
Let P(n) be the statement “3n belongs to S”.

Basis step: P(1) is true, because 3 is in S.

Inductive step: To show:


If P(n) is true, then P(n + 1) is true.
Assume 3n is in S. Since 3n is in S and 3 is in S, it
follows from the recursive definition of S that
3n + 3 = 3(n + 1) is also in S.

Conclusion of Part I: A  S.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 25


Recursively Defined Sets
Part II: To show: S  A.
Basis step: To show:
All initial elements of S are in A. 3 is in A. True.
Inductive step: To show:
(x + y) is in A whenever x and y are in A.
If x and y are both in A, it follows that 3 | x and 3 | y.
As we already know, it follows that 3 | (x + y).

Conclusion of Part II: S  A.


Overall conclusion: A = S.
April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 26
Recursively Defined Sets
Another example:

The well-formed formulas of variables, numerals


and operators from {+, -, *, /, ^} are defined by:

x is a well-formed formula if x is a numeral or


variable.

(f + g), (f – g), (f * g), (f / g), (f ^ g) are well-formed


formulas if f and g are.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 27


Recursively Defined Sets
With this definition, we can construct formulas such
as:

(x – y)
((z / 3) – y)
((z / 3) – (6 + 5))
((z / (2 * 4)) – (6 + 5))

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 28


Recursive Algorithms
An algorithm is called recursive if it solves a problem
by reducing it to an instance of the same problem with
smaller input.

Example I: Recursive Euclidean Algorithm

procedure gcd(a, b: nonnegative integers with a < b)


if a = 0 then gcd(a, b) := b
else gcd(a, b) := gcd(b mod a, a)

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 29


Recursive Algorithms
Example II: Recursive Fibonacci Algorithm

procedure fibo(n: nonnegative integer)


if n = 0 then fibo(0) := 0
else if n = 1 then fibo(1) := 1
else fibo(n) := fibo(n – 1) + fibo(n – 2)

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 30


Recursive Algorithms
Recursive Fibonacci Evaluation:

f(4)

f(3) f(2)

f(2)
f(1) f(1) f(0)

f(1) f(0)

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 31


Recursive Algorithms
procedure iterative_fibo(n: nonnegative integer)
if n = 0 then y := 0
else
begin
x := 0
y := 1
for i := 1 to n-1
begin
z := x + y
x:=y
y := z
end
end {y is the n-th Fibonacci number}

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 32


Recursive Algorithms

For every recursive algorithm, there is an equivalent


iterative algorithm.

Recursive algorithms are often shorter, more


elegant, and easier to understand than their
iterative counterparts.

However, iterative algorithms are usually more


efficient in their use of space and time.

April 14, 2024 Dept. of CSE, KUET 33

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