Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
  Introductory Concepts:
 Goals and applications of networks,
 Categories of networks,
 Organization of the Internet, ISP,
 Network structure and architecture (layering principles,
services, protocols and standards),
 The OSI reference model,
 TCP/IP protocol suite, Network devices and
 components.
 Physical Layer:
 Network topology design,
 Types of connections,
 Transmission media,
 Signal transmission and encoding,
 Network performance and transmission impairments,
 Switching techniques and
 multiplexing.

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 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Fundamental Characteristics:
Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, Jitter
Topics discussed in this section:
Components (Message, Sender, Receiver, Transmission Medium,
Protocol).
Data Représentation (Text, Number, Images, Audio, Video)
Data Flow (Simplex, Duplex, Half Duplex)
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 Goals of networks
 Resource Sharing

 High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be
 replicated on two or more machines.
 Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically apart,
may converse in an interactive session through the network.
 Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network.
 Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against software, and
encryption to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
 Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance.
 Scalability

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 Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer
network that connects computers/devices within the range of an
individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a
person’s range typically within a range of 10 meters(33 feet) it is
called a Personal Area Network. A Personal Area Network typically
involves a computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital
Assistant) and other and other entertainment devices like
speakers, video game consoles, etc.

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 Campus Area Network (CAN) is a group of
interconnected Local Area Networks (LAN) within a limited
geographical area like school campus, university campus, military
bases, or organizational campuses and corporate buildings etc.

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 Components
4. Transmission medium. The
1. Message. The message is the transmission medium is the
information (data) to be physical path by which a message
communicated. Popular forms of travels from sender to receiver.
information include text, numbers, Some examples of transmission
pictures, audio, and video. media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and
radio waves.
2. Sender. The sender is the device
that sends the data message. It
can be a computer, workstation, 5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules
that govern data communications. It
telephone handset, video camera,
represents an agreement between
and so on.
the communicating devices. Without
a protocol, two devices may be
3. Receiver. The receiver is the connected but not communicating,
device that receives the message. just as a person speaking French
It can be a computer, workstation, cannot be understood by a person
telephone handset, television, and who speaks only Japanese.
so on.

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 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

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 Data Representation
 Text (Unicode, American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII))
 Numbers
 Images ( Divided into pixel with size in bit
patterns, has color scheme of RGB- red,
green, and blue or YCM- yellow, cyan, and
magenta.
 Audio
 Video
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 Data Flow
 Simplex
 Duplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex

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 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria (performance, reliability, security)
Physical Structures (Type of Connection: Multipoint, Point to
Point. Topology: Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring, Hybrid)
Network Models (OSI, TCP/IP)
Categories of Networks (PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN)
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
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 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

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 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

4. Each connection can carry its own
data load.
5. It is robust.
6. Fault is diagnosed easily.
7. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

8. Installation and configuration is
difficult.
Types of Mesh Topology 9. Cabling cost is more.
1.Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology somewiring
10.Bulk of theissystems
required.are
connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are
only connected to two or three devices.
2.Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected
to each other.
 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and
low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has
failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.
Features of Star Topology
2. Expensive to use.
1.Every node has its own dedicated 3. If the hub fails then the whole networ
connection to the hub. is stopped because all the nodes
2.Hub acts as a repeater for data flow. depend on the hub.
3.Can be used with twisted pair, Optical 4. Performance is based on the hub that
Fibre or coaxial cable. is it depends on its capacity
 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

Features of Bus Topology

1.It transmits data only in one
direction.
2.Every device is connected to a
single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective. Disadvantages of Bus Topology
2. Used in small networks. 1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
3. It is easy to understand. 2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are
4. Easy to expand joining two cables more the performance of the network
together. decreases.
5. Cable required is least compared to 3. Cable has a limited length.
other network topology. 4. It is slower than the ring topology.
Features of Ring Topology
1.A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in
the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters
are used in the network.
2.The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
3.In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act
as a backup, to keep the network up.
A ring topology connecting six stations

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring Topology 1.Troubleshooting is difficult in ring
1.Transmitting network is not topology.
affected by high traffic or by 2.Adding or deleting the computer
adding more nodes, as only the disturbs the network activity.
nodes having tokens can transmit 3.Failure of one computer disturbs
data. the whole network.
2.Cheap to install and expand
 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section:

A Brief History
The Internet Today (ISPs)

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 Brief History
 Came into existence in 1969 only after Packet Switched Network was invented in 1961 at
MIT by Leonard Kleinrock.
 DoD (Dept of Defense) through ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) represented
ARPANET in ACM (Association of Comuting Machinery) meeting in 1967.
 Introduced IMP (Interface Message Processor).
 In 1969, UCLA – UCSB – SRI – UoU got connected.
 University of California Los Angeles – UCLA
 University of California Santa Barbara – UCSB
 University of Utah – UoU
 Sanford Research Institute (SRI)
 Software Support by NCP – Network Control Protocol.
 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn came up with paper on TCP with networking concepts of
encapsulation, datagram, gateways, end to end delivery of packets.
 Soon TCP was split into TCP and IP.
 In 1981, UC Berkeley modified the UNIX operating system to include TCP/IP which
popularized Internetworking.
 Then came creation of CSNET in 1981. Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a
network sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF).
 In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks: Military Network (MILNET) for military
users and ARPANET for nonmilitary users.

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History
• Mid-1960s: Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD)
• 1967: (ACM) ->ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET
• 1969 ->ARPANET was a reality
Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP)
specialized computer, called an interface message
processor (IMP)
• 1972->Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn Internetting Project
• TCP IP
 Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

ISP – Internet Service Provider

NAP – Network Access Point

ISP Communicate with each

others network through NAP

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Protocol
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the

data, meaning the order in which they are presented.

 Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of

each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be

interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
 Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when

data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

Standards
 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open
and competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and processes.
 De facto:
 Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto
standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define
the functionality of a new product or technology
 De jure:
 Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are
de jure standards.
 Standards Organization
 ISO – International Organization of Standardization
 ITU-T – International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standards formed CCITT in 1993 for
research.
 CCITT – Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy
and Telephony.
 ANSI – American National Standards Institutions.
 IEEE – Institute of Electric and Electronics Engineers
 EIA – Electronic Industries Association
 FCC – Federal Communication Commission
 RFC – Request for Comment
 How about Controlling body in India?

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 Standards Organization in
INDIA
Press Council of India (PCI),
News Broadcasting Standards Authority (NBSA),
 Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC),
 Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI),
 Indian Broadcasters Federation (IBF),
 News Broadcasters Association (NBA),
 Indian Media Group (IMG),
 Indian Society of Advertisers (ISA),
 The Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI),
 Advertising Agencies Association of India (AAAI),
 Media Research Users Council (MRUC),
 Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC),
 Press Trust of India (PTI),
 Confederation of Indian Industry (CII),
 the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM),
 Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI),
 United News of India (UNI)
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