Facts and Theory of Air

For industrial pneumatics

 Contents
 Composition of air  Constant pressure
 Atmospheric pressure  Constant volume
 Industrial compressed air  General gas law
 Pressure  Adiabatic compression
 Pressure units  Water in compressed air
 Pressure and force  Low temperature drying
 The gas laws  Flow of compressed air
 Constant temperature  Air quality

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 Composition of air
 The air we breathe is
springy, squashy and Composition by Volume
fluid in substance Nitrogen 78.09% N2
Oxygen 20.95% O2
 We take it for granted
that wherever there is Argon 0.93% Ar
space it will be filled Others 0.03%
with air
 Air is composed
mainly of nitrogen
and oxygen
 Atmospheric pressure
 The atmospheric
pressure is caused
by the weight of air
above us
 It gets less as we
climb a mountain,
more as we descend
into a mine
 The pressure value is
also influenced by
changing weather
conditions
 Standard Atmosphere
 A standard atmosphere is defined by
The International Civil Aviation Organisation.
The pressure and temperature at sea level is
1013.25 milli bar absolute and 288 K (15OC)

1013.25 m bar
 ISO Atmospheres
 ISO Recommendation R 554
 Standard Atmospheres for conditioning and/or testing of
material, components or equipment
 20OC, 65% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar

 27OC, 65% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar

 23OC, 50% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar

 Tolerances ± 2OC ± 5%RH

 Reduced tolerances ± 1OC ± 2%RH

 Standard Reference Atmosphere to which tests made at

other atmospheres can be corrected
 20OC, 65% RH, 1013 mbar
No qualifying altitude is given as it is concerned only with the effect
of temperature, humidity and pressure
 Atmospheric pressure
 We see values of
atmospheric 1015 mb
pressure on a
1012 mb
weather map
 The lines called 1008 mb
isobars show
contours of pressure 1000 mb
in millibar
996 mb
 These help predict
the wind direction LOW
and force
 Mercury barometer
 Atmospheric pressure
can be measured as the
height of a liquid column
in a vacuum
 760 mm Hg = 1013.9
millibar approximately 760 mm Hg
 A water barometer tube
would be over 10 metres
long. Hg = 13.6 times the
density of H2O
 For vacuum measurement
1 mm Hg = 1 Torr
760 Torr = nil vacuum
0 Torr = full vacuum
 Atmosphere and vacuum
 The power of
atmospheric pressure
is apparent in industry
where pick and place
suction cups and
vacuum forming
machines are used
 Air is removed from
one side allowing
atmospheric pressure
on the other to do the
work
 Industrial compressed air
17 16
 Pressures are in “bar g” 16 15
gauge pressure ( the 15 14 Extended
value above atmosphere) 14 13 Industrial

Absolute pressure bar a

 Zero gauge pressure is
13 12 range

Gauge pressure bar g

12 11
atmospheric pressure 11 10
 Absolute pressures are 10 9 Typical
9 8 Industrial
used for calculations 8 7 range
Pa = Pg + atmosphere 7 6
 For quick calculations 6 5 Low
5 4 range
assume 1 atmosphere is 4 3
1000 mbar 3 2
2 1
 For standard calculations Atmosphere
1 0
1 atmosphere is 0 Full vacuum
1013 mbar
 Pressure
 1 bar = 100000 N/m2  For measuring lower
(Newtons per square pressures the millibar
metre) (mbar) is used
 1 bar = 10 N/cm2  1000 mbar = 1 bar
 For measurements in
pounds per square
inch (psi)
1 psi = 68.95mbar
14.5 psi = 1bar
 Pressure units
 There are many units of pressure measurement.
Some of these and their equivalents are listed
below.
 1 bar = 100000 N/m2
 1 bar = 100 kPa
 1 bar = 14.50 psi
 1 bar = 10197 kgf/m2
 1 mm Hg = 1.334 mbar approx.
 1 mm H2O = 0.0979 mbar approx.
 1 Torr = 1mmHg abs (for vacuum)
More units of pressure
Pressure and force
 Pressure and force
 Compressed air exerts a
force of constant value to
every internal contact
surface of the pressure
containing equipment.
 Liquid in a vessel will be
pressurised and transmit
this force
 For every bar of gauge
pressure, 10 Newtons are
exerted uniformly over
each square centimetre.
 Pressure and force
D mm
 The thrust developed by a piston
due to air pressure is the effective
area multiplied by the pressure
P bar

Thrust =
 D2 P
Newtons
40
Where
D = The bore of a cylinder in mm
P = The pressure in bar.
We require an answer in Newtons
1bar = 100000 N/m2
D2 is therefore divided by 1000000 to bring
it to m2 and P is multiplied by 100000 to
bring it to N/m2. The result is a division
by 10 shown in the product 40 above
 Pressure and force
 The force contained by a
cylinder barrel is the
projected area multiplied l
by the pressure

Force = D . l . P Newtons
10
Where
D = the cylinder bore mm
l = length of pressurised chamber mm
P = the pressure in bar
 Pressure and force
 If both ports of a double
acting cylinder are
connected to the same
pressure source, the
cylinder will move out
due to the difference in
areas either side of the
piston
 If a through rod cylinder
is applied in this way it
will be in balance and not
move in either direction
 Pressure and force
 In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
 P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures

P1 P2
 Pressure and force
 In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
 P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures

P2 P1
 Pressure and force
 In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
 P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures

P1 P2
The gas laws
 The gas laws
 For any given mass of air the variable properties are
pressure, volume and temperature.
 By assuming one of the three variables to be held at a
constant value, we will look at the relationship between
the other two for each case

 Constant temperature P.V = constant

V
 Constant pressure = constant
T
P
 Constant volume = constant
T
Constant Temperature
 Constant temperature
Pressure P
 Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
 This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2

temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
 Constant temperature
Pressure P
 Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
 This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2

temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
 Constant temperature
Pressure P
 Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
 This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2

temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
 Constant temperature
Pressure P
 Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
 This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2

temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
 Constant temperature
Pressure P
 Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
 This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2

temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
Constant Pressure
 Constant pressure
Temperature
 Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
 Assuming no friction a 20 293K
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40

 From an ambient of 20oC -60

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
a change of 73.25oC will
produce a 25% change of
volume. V1 V2
= =c
 0o Celsius = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 Constant pressure
Temperature
 Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
366.25K
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
 Assuming no friction a 20
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40

 From an ambient of 20oC -60

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
a change of 73.25oC will
produce a 25% change of
volume. V1 V2
= =c
 0o Celsius = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 Constant pressure
Temperature
 Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
 Assuming no friction a 20
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40
219.75K
 From an ambient of 20oC -60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
a change of 73.25oC will
produce a 25% change of
volume. V1 V2
= =c
 0o Celsius = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 Constant pressure
Temperature
 Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
366.25K
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
 Assuming no friction a 20 293K
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40
219.75K
 From an ambient of 20oC -60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
a change of 73.25oC will
produce a 25% change of
volume. V1 V2
= =c
 0o Celsius = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
Constant volume
 Constant volume
Temperature
 From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the
8
6 10

0 4 12

absolute temperature K. -20 2 14

0 bar 16

 For a volume at 20oC and -40

bar absolute
10 bar absolute a change -60
0 5 10 15 20
in temperature of 60oC
will produce a change in
pressure of 2.05 bar P1 P2
= =c
 0oC = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 Constant volume
Temperature
 From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the
8
6 10

0 4 12

absolute temperature K. -20 2 14

0 bar 16

 For a volume at 20oC and -40

bar absolute
10 bar absolute a change -60
0 5 10 15 20
in temperature of 60oC
will produce a change in
pressure of 2.05 bar P1 P2
= =c
 0oC = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 Constant volume
Temperature
 From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the
8
6 10

0 4 12

absolute temperature K. -20 2 14

0 bar 16

 For a volume at 20oC and -40

bar absolute
10 bar absolute a change -60
0 5 10 15 20
in temperature of 60oC
will produce a change in
pressure of 2.05 bar P1 P2
= =c
 0oC = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 Constant volume
Temperature
 From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the
8
6 10

0 4 12

absolute temperature K. -20 2 14

0 bar 16

 For a volume at 20oC and -40

bar absolute
10 bar absolute a change -60
0 5 10 15
in temperature of 60oC
will produce a change in
pressure of 2.05 bar P1 P2
= =c
 0oC = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
 The general gas law
 The general gas law is a combination of Boyle’s
law and Charles’ law where pressure, volume
and temperature may all vary between states of a
given mass of gas but their relationship result in
a constant value.

P1 .V1 P2 .V2
= = constant
T1 T2
Adiabatic and polytropic
compression

For compressed air

 Adiabatic compression
 In theory, when a volume  For adiabatic
of air is compressed compression and
instantly, the process is expansion
adiabatic (there is no time P V n= c
to dissipate heat through for air n = 1.4
the walls of the cylinder)
 In the cylinder of an air
compressor the process
16 PV 1. 4 = c is fast but some heat will
14 adiabatic
be lost through the
12 PV 1. 2 = c
10 polytropic
cylinder walls therefore
bar a the value of n will be less
8 PV = c
6 isothermal
1.3 approximately for a
4
high speed compressor
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume
 Polytropic compression
 In practice such as in a shock absorbing application there
will be some heat loss during compression
 The compression characteristic will be somewhere
between adiabatic and isothermal
 The value of n will be less than 1.4 dependent on the rate
of compression. Typically PV 1.2 = c can be used but is
applicable only during the process
Water in compressed air
Water in compressed air
 When large quantities of
air are compressed,
noticeable amounts of
water are formed
 The natural moisture
fully vapour contained in the
saturated atmosphere is squeezed
air out like wringing out a
damp sponge
 The air will still be fully
saturated (100% RH)
within the receiver
Condensate
Drain
 Water in compressed air
 The amount of water vapour contained in a sample of the
atmosphere is measured as relative humidity %RH. This
percentage is the proportion of the maximum amount that
can be held at the prevailing temperature.
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH

40
Temperature Celsius

At 20o Celsius
20
100% RH = 17.4 g/m3
50% RH = 8.7 g/m3
0
25% RH = 4.35 g/m3
-20

-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m 3
 Water in compressed air
 The illustration shows four cubes each representing 1
cubic metre of atmospheric air at 20oC. Each of these
volumes are at a relative humidity of 50% (50%RH). This
means that they actually contain 8.7 grams of water
vapour, half of the maximum possible 17.4 grams
 Water in compressed air
 When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
 Water in compressed air
 When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
 Water in compressed air
 When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
 Water in compressed air
 When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
 Water in compressed air
 When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
 Water in compressed air
 4 cubic metres at 50%RH and 1000
mbar atmospheric pressure
contained in the space of 1 cubic
metre produce a pressure of 3 bar
gauge
 17.4 grams of water remain as a
vapour producing 100% RH (relative
humidity) and 17.4 grams condense
to liquid water
 This is a continuous process, so
once the gauge pressure is over 1
bar, every time a cubic metre of air
is compressed, and added to the
contained 1 cubic metre, a further
8.7 grams of water are condensed
Low temperature drying
 Low temperature drier
 Humid air enters the first Humid air in
heat exchanger where it
is cooled by the dry air
going out
Dry air out
 The air enters the second
heat exchanger where it
is refrigerated
 The condensate is
collected and drained
away
 As the dry refrigerated air M Drain
leaves it is warmed by the
incoming humid air Refrigeration
plant
 Low temperature drying
 If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH

40
Temperature Celsius

20

-20

-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m 3
 Low temperature drying
 If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH

40
Temperature Celsius

20

-20

-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m 3
 Low temperature drying
 If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH

40
Temperature Celsius

20

-20

-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m 3
Flow of compressed air
 Flow units
 Flow is measured as a
1 cubic foot
volume of free air per unit of
1 litre or
time
cubic decimetre
 Popular units are :
 Litres or cubic decimetres
per second
l/s or dm3/s
 Cubic metres per minute
m3/m
 Standard cubic feet per
minute (same as cubic feet
of free air) scfm
 1 m3/m = 35.31 scfm
 1 dm3/s = 2.1 scfm
 1 scfm = 0.472 l/s
 1 scfm = 0.0283 m3/min 1 cubic metre
or 1000 dm3
 Free air flow
 The space between the Actual volume of 1 litre
bars represents the actual of free air at pressure
volume in the pipe 0 1 litre
occupied by 1 litre of free 1bar a
air at the respective /2
1

absolute pressures. 2bar a

 Flow takes place as the 1
/4
result of a pressure
differential, at 1bar 4bar a
absolute (0 bar gauge) /8
1

there will be flow only to a 8bar a

vacuum pressure 1
/16
 If the velocity were the
same each case will flow 16bar a
twice the one above
 Sonic flow
9
8
 The limiting speed at 7 P1 is 9 bar a
reservoir to
which air can flow is the 6 atmosphere
speed of sound 5
P1 bar 4
 For sonic flow to exist, P1 absolute 3
2P2
2
must be approx. 2 times P2 1 atm

or more 1.894 0
0 5 10 15 20
time
 When exhausting air from 9
a reservoir at high 8
7
pressure to atmosphere 6
P2 bar
the flow will be constant 5 /2P1
1
absolute
until P1 is less than 2 P2 4 P1 is 9 bar a
3 source to
 When charging a reservoir 2 reservoir
1
the flow will be constant 0
atm

0 5 10 15 20
until P2 is 1/2 P1
 Flow through valves
 Valve flow performance is usually indicated by a flow
factor of some kind, such as “C”, “b”, “Cv”, “Kv” and
others.
 The most accurate way of determining the performance of
a pneumatic valve is through its values of “C”
(conductance) and “b” (critical pressure ratio). These
figures are determined by testing the valve to ISO 6358
 For a range of steady source
pressures P1 the pressure P1 P2
P2 is plotted against the
flow through the valve until
it reaches a maximum
 The result is a set of curves
showing the flow characteristics
of the valve
 Flow through valves
 From these curves the critical pressure ratio “b” can be
found. “b” represents the ratio of P2 to P1 at which the flow
velocity goes sonic. Also the conductance“C”at this point
which represents the flow “dm³/ second / bar absolute”
0.5 Critical pressure ratio b = 0.15
Conductance
Flow 0.4
C= 0.062 dm/s/bar a
dm3/s
For the horizontal part
free 0.3
of the curve only
air
0.2
P1 is the zero
0.1
flow point for
0 each curve
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Downstream Pressure P2 bar gauge
 Flow through valves
 If a set of curves are not available but the conductance
and critical pressure ratio are known the value of flow for
any pressure drop can be calculated using this formulae

2
P2
-b
P1
Q = C P1 1-
1-b

Where :
P1 = upstream pressure bar
P2 = downstream pressure bar
C = conductance dm3/s/bar a
b = critical pressure ratio
Q = flow dm3/s
Air Quality
 Air filtration quality
 ISO 8573-1 Compressed  An air quality class is
air for general use stated as three air quality
 Part 1 Contaminants and numbers e.g. 1.7.1
quality classes  solids 0.1 µm max
and 0.1 mg/m 3 max
 Allowable levels of
contamination are given a
 water not specified
quality class number  0.01 mg/m3 max
 Specified according to  This is the filtration class
the levels of these resulting from a Norgren
contaminants: Ultraire Filter
 solid particles  To obtain pressure dew
 water points that are low, also
 oil use an air drier
 Compressed air quality
ISO 8573-1
Class Solids Water Oil
particle concentration Max Pressure concentration
size max maximum Dew point OC mg/m3
µm mg/m3
1 0.1 0.1 – 70 0.01
2 1 1 – 40 0.1
3 5 5 – 20 1
4 15 8 +3 5
5 40 10 +7 25
6 - - + 10 -
7 - - Not Specified -
Pressure dew point is the temperature to
which compressed air must be cooled before
water vapour in the air starts to condense into
water particles
End
 Pressure units
 Standard Atmosphere = 1.01325 bar abs
 Technical Atmosphere = 0.98100 bar abs
 1 mm Hg = 1.334mbar approx.
 1 mm H2O = 0.0979 mbar approx.
 1 kPa = 10.0 mbar
 1 MPa = 10 bar
 1 kgf/cm2 = 981 mbar
 1 N/m2 = 0.01 mbar
 1 Torr = 1mmHg abs (for vacuum)
 Pressure units
 1 bar = 100000 N/m2
 1 bar = 1000000 dyn/cm2
 1 bar = 10197 kgf/m2
 1 bar = 100 kPa
 1 bar = 14.50 psi
 1 bar = 0.98690 standard atmospheres
 Pressure units
 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.001mbar
 1 psi = 68.95mbar
 Standard atmosphere = 14.7 psi approx.
 Standard atmosphere = 760 Torr approx.
 1 inch Hg = 33.8 mbar approx.
 1 inch H2O = 2.49mbar approx.
 100 mbar is about as hard as the average person
can blow
 Temperature conversion
393 120
240  The absolute temperature
373
220
100
scale is measured in
200 degrees Kelvin OK
180
353 80  On the Celsius scale 0OC
160 and 100OC are the
333 140 60 freezing and boiling
120 points for water
313 100 40  O
K = OC + 273.15
80
293 20
 The Fahrenheit and
60
Celsius scales coincide at
40 - 40O
273 0
20
 O
F = OC. 9/5 + 32
253 0 -20
-20
233 -40 -40
O
K O
F O
C
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