Evolution and Adaptations

● Evolutionary theory is a major theme in

the study of biology

● Evolution- the process by which organisms

change over time

● Ancestral organisms look different from

their modern descendant species

● Species- a group of organisms that are

closely related and can mate to produce
fertile offspring
● Fossils provide evidence
that organisms changed
over time and went extinct

● Fossils in lower layers of

Earth are older than fossils
that appear in upper layers

● Shows earth has existed

for a very long time- 4.6
billion years!
Several geologic theories help solidify the evidence…
A student researches different models of evolution in the fossil record. The student’s findings
are summarized in the table. Complete the table to show which evolutionary model each image
represents and which environmental conditions lead to the types of changes.
The scientist famous for
his theory of evolution
was Charles Darwin
● Born February 12, 1809 in England
● Naturalist and biologist
● In 1831, left for a voyage on the HMS Beagle to the Galapagos islands to collect data
about his theory of evolution
● Collected specimens from the island and made observations about them
● Darwin noticed tremendous amounts of
variation among similar species

● Variation- difference in physical traits of

an individual from those of other
individuals in the group to which it belongs

● Species on one island look different from

species on another, and species on an island
look different from species on the mainland

● Differences seemed well-suited to the

animal’s environment and diet

● Ex. Darwin’s finches

● Some finches had beaks better suited to cracking open large nuts
while others had much smaller beaks appropriate for eating insects

● Darwin concluded that species can adapt to their environment

● Adaptation- a feature that allows an organism to better survive and

reproduce in its environment

● Adaptations can lead to genetic change in a population over time

Adaptation- a feature that allows an organism to better survive and reproduce in its
environment
● Physical characteristic that helps an organism outperform other organisms
● Makes the species fit its environment better

Ex. Arctic fox fur color

Arctic fox fur color changes in response to the seasons- they are white during the winter
and are brown during the summer
The fur color changing in response to the environment changing helps the fox survive and
reproduce
Which bird
foot
adaptation
would best
fit an aquatic
environment?
Which bird
foot
adaptation
would a
flightless
bird have?
Which bird
foot
adaptation
would best
fit a
predatory
bird?
Which bird
adaptation
would best
fit a bird
that
perches?
Theory of Natural Selection
● Darwin used the idea of adaptation as well as high amounts of variation among a species to
propose a mechanism of how organisms can change over time
● People can use this variation and select certain traits to produce organisms with selected
traits
● Artificial selection- the process by which humans change a species by breeding it for
certain traits
● Humans can increase genetic variation by acting as the selective agent
Ex. Dogs!
● In nature, the environment creates the selective pressure that determines if a trait is
passed or not
● Natural selection- mechanism by which individuals that have inherited beneficial
adaptations show differential reproductive success
● They produce more offspring on average than do other individuals
● Characteristics selected only if they give reproductive advantage in the environment as it is
right now

Ex. Peppered moths

There are 4 principles to the theory of natural selection:
1. Variation

2. Overproduction

3. Adaptation

4. Descent with modification

1. Variation
● The heritable differences that exist in
every population are basis for natural
selection
● Population- all of the individuals of a
species that live in the same area
● Differences among individuals result
from differences in genetic material of
the organism
2. Overproduction
● Having many offspring increases the
chance that some of them will survive
● Results in competition between
offspring for resources or mates
3. Adaptation
● A certain variation may allow an individual
to survive better than other individuals it
competes against
● More successful individuals are “naturally
selected” to live longer and produce more
offspring
● Offspring get adaptations that helped the
parent be more successful
● Fitness- measure of the ability to survive
and produce more offspring relative to
other members of the population in a
given environment
4. Descent with Modification
● Over time, natural selection will
result in species with adaptations
that are well-suited for survival
and reproduction in a given
environment
● More individuals will have the
trait in the following generations
● Natural selection is the idea that individuals who have successful adaptations will live
longer and produce more offspring
● The offspring will inherit those adaptations and will also live longer and reproduce
● Over time, the adaptations will build up and may give rise to a new species (evolution)
Practice #1
What adaptations does this organism have that make it successful?
Practice #2
What adaptations does this organism have that make it successful?
Structures of Evolution
● Besides fossils, some of Darwin’s best evidence for evolution came from comparing body
parts of different species
● Homologous structure- features that are similar in structure but appear in different
organisms and have different functions
● Appearance of similar structure is strong evidence for common descent
The forelimbs of mammals have several bones that are similar to each other despite different
functions.
Homologous structure are different in detail but similar in structure and relation; they are
compelling pieces of evidence that organisms descended from one common ancestor.
● Homologous structures have similar structure due to similar origin and
different functions
● Analogous structures have a similar function but are not from similar origin
● Arise when different species face similar selective and environmental
pressures that result in being physically similar even though they are
unrelated

Ex. Bat and insect wings

Ex. Torpedo shape for swimming
● Homologous structures have similar structure due to similar origin and
different functions
● Analogous structures have a similar function but are not from similar
origin
● Vestigial structures are remnants of an organ or structure that used to
serve a purpose in an early ancestor but is now useless or has a different
function

Ex. Ostrich wings

Ex. Pelvic bones in snakes
Ex. Tailbone in humans
Mechanisms of Microevolution
● Recall that evolution is driven by natural selection- the idea that
organisms with beneficial traits, or adaptations, will survive and
reproduce more successfully than other organisms of the same species

● Other smaller mechanisms of evolution occur along with natural selection

to create new species and increase genetic diversity within populations
Gene Flow- movement of alleles from one population to another
● Animals move between populations
● Increases genetic variation of the population that animals are moving INTO
Genetic drift- change in allele frequencies due to chance alone, occurring most commonly
in small populations
● Random genes are lost
● Often causes a loss of diversity in populations
Genetic Drift: Bottleneck effect- genetic drift that occurs after a catastrophic event greatly
reduces the size of the population and the genes available
● randomly eliminates genetic variety
Genetic Drift: Founder Effect- genetic drift that occurs after a small number of individuals
from one population leave and colonize a new area
● New population is genetically unrepresentative of the original population
Sexual Selection
● Mating can have an important effect on the evolution of populations
● Some traits increase reproductive success, resulting in sexual selection
● Females in many species are “choosy” about mates
● Intrasexual selection- competition among males for females
● Intersexual selection- males adisplay traits to attract females
Which of these is the direct result of an error in the transcription of a DNA nucleotide?
a. The nuclear membrane is ruptured
b. Amino acids do not bond to tRNA
c. A codon sequence is incorrect
d. Transportation of mRNA does not occur
Evolution of Populations
Genetic variation comes from 2 main sources: mutation and recombination
Mutation- a random change in the DNA of a gene
● Changes can form a new allele
● Mutations in reproductive cells can be passed on to offspring
● If mutations are passed on, this can increase genetic variation in the
population
3 different kinds of mutation: insertion, deletion, and substitution
1. Insertion mutations
● an incorrect nucleotide is inserted into the existing DNA strand

Ex. TACGTAAGC TACGTCAAGC

2. Deletion mutations
● a nucleotide is removed from the existing DNA strand

Ex. TACGTAAGC TACGAAGC

3. Substitution mutation
● An incorrect nucleotide replaces an existing in the DNA strand
● Sometimes this does nothing, sometimes this causes problems

Ex. TACGTAAGC
TACGTGAGC
Ex. Sickle cell anemia
Recombination- the formation of new allele combinations
● Occurs during meiosis (formation of gametes)
● Each parent’s alleles are arranged in new ways
● Shuffling of alleles results in many genetic combinations
● Some biologists are studying hybridization as another source of variation
● Hybridization- interbreeding between individuals of different species
● Occurs when similar species live in the same area and individuals cannot find a
mate of their own species

Ex. Ligers
Ex. Zedonk