Network+ Guide to Networks 5th Edition

Chapter 3 Transmission Basics and Networking Media

Objectives
Explain basic data transmission concepts, including full duplexing, attenuation, latency, and noise Describe the physical characteristics of coaxial cable, STP, UTP, and fiber-optic media Compare the benefits and limitations of different networking media Explain the principles behind and uses for serial connector cables Identify wiring standards and the best practices for cabling buildings and work areas

Transmission Basics
Transmit
Issue signals along network medium

Transmission
Process of transmitting Signal progress after transmitted

Transceiver
Transmit and receive signals

Analog and Digital Signaling

Important data transmission characteristic
Signaling type: analog or digital

Volt
Electrical current pressure

Electrical signal strength

Directly proportional to voltage Signal voltage

Signals
Current, light pulses, electromagnetic waves

Figure 3-1: An example of an analog signal

Analog data signals

Voltage varies continuously Properties
Amplitude, frequency, wavelength, phase

Analog and Digital Signaling (contd.)

Amplitude
Analog waves strength

Frequency
Number of times amplitude cycles over fixed time period Measure in hertz (Hz)

Wavelength
Distance between corresponding wave cycle points Inversely proportional to frequency Expressed in meters or feet

Figure 3-2: Waves with a 90-degree phase difference

Phase
Waves progress over time in relationship to fixed point

Analog and Digital Signaling (contd.)

Analog signal benefit over digital
More variable
Convey greater subtleties with less energy

Drawback of analog signals

Varied and imprecise voltage
Susceptible to transmission flaws

Digital signals
Pulses of voltages
Positive voltage represents a 1 Zero voltage represents a 0

Figure 3-3 An example of a digital signal

Binary system
1s and 0s represent information

Bit (binary digit)

Possible values: 1 or 0 Digital signal pulse

Figure 3-4 Components of a byte

Byte
Eight bits together

Computers read and write information

Using bits and bytes

Find decimal value of a bit

Multiply the 1 or 0 by 2x (x equals bits position)

Analog and Digital Signaling (contd.)

Convert byte to decimal number
Determine value represented by each bit Add values

Convert decimal number to a byte

Reverse the process

Convert between binary and decimal

By hand or calculator

Binary to Decimal conversion

Binary numbers are sometimes written prefixed with 0b 0b0001 = 0*8 + 0*4 + 0*2 + 1*1 = 1 0b1010 = 1*8 + 0*4 + 1*2 + 0*1 = 10 0b1011 = 1*8 + 0*4 + 1*2 + 1*1 = 11

Decimal to Binary
14 = 8+4+2 = 1*8 + 1*4 + 1*2 + 0*1 = 0b1110 3 = 2+1 = 0*8 + 0*4 + 1*2 + 1*1 = 0b0011 6 = 4+2 = 0*8 + 1*4 + 1*2 + 0*1 = 0b0110

Larger Values
128= 1*128 + 0*64 + 0*32 +0*16 +0*8 +0*4 + 0*2 +0*1 128 = 0b10000000 162= 128 + 32 + 2 162= 1*128 + 0*64 + 1*32 +0*16 +0*8 +0*4 + 1*2 +0*1 162 = 0b10100010 0b1111000 = 1*128 + 1*64 + 1*32 +1*16 +0*8 +0*4 + 0*2 +0*1 0 = 128 + 64 + 32 +16 = 240

Binary on Quizzes
I'll add a binary question to the next quiz, and maybe the one after that, as extra credit I recommend that you learn binary conversion, but I don't require it

Analog and Digital Signaling (contd.)

Digital signal benefit over analog signal
More reliable Less severe noise interference

Digital signal drawback

Many pulses required to transmit same information

Overhead
Nondata information
Required for proper signal routing and interpretation Such as addressing information

Data Modulation
Data relies on digital transmission Network connection may handle only analog signals Modem
Accomplishes translation Modulator/demodulator

Data modulation
Technology modifying analog signals Make data suitable for carrying over communication path

Data Modulation (contd.)

Carrier wave
Combined with another analog signal Produces unique signal
Transmitted from one node to another

Preset properties Purpose

Convey information

Information wave (data wave)

Added to carrier wave Modifies one carrier wave property

Data Modulation (contd.)

Frequency modulation (FM)
Carrier frequency modified
By application of data signal

Amplitude modulation (AM)

Carrier signal amplitude modified
By application of data signal

AM and FM

From link Ch 3a

Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Duplex

Simplex
Signal transmission: one direction Like broadcast TV

Half-duplex transmission
Signal transmission: both directions
One at a time

One communication channel

Shared for multiple nodes to exchange information

Full-duplex
Signals transmission: both directions simultaneously Used on data networks

Figure 3-6 Simplex, half-duplex, and full duplex transmission

Channel
Distinct communication path between nodes Separated physically or logically

Full duplex advantage

Increases speed

Multiplexing
Multiplexing
Multiple signals Travel simultaneously over one medium

Subchannels
Logical multiple smaller channels

Multiplexer (mux)
Combines many channel signals

Demultiplexer (demux)
Separates combined signals Regenerates them

Figure 3-7 Time division multiplexing

TDM (time division multiplexing)

Divides channel into multiple time intervals

Figure 3-8 Statistical multiplexing

Statistical multiplexing
Transmitter assigns slots to nodes
According to priority, need

More efficient than TDM

Figure 3-9 Frequency division multiplexing

FDM (frequency division multiplexing)

Unique frequency band for each communications subchannel Two types
Cellular telephone transmission DSL Internet access

Figure 3-10 Wavelength division multiplexing

WDM (wavelength division multiplexing)

One fiber-optic connection Carries multiple light signals simultaneously DWDM (dense wavelength division multiplexing) Used on most modern fiber-optic networks Extraordinary capacity

Relationships Between Nodes

Point-to-point transmission
One transmitter and one receiver

Point-to-multipoint transmission
One transmitter and multiple receivers Broadcast transmission
One transmitter and multiple, undefined receivers Used on wired and wireless networks
Simple and quick

Nonbroadcast
One transmitter and multiple, defined receivers

Relationships Between Nodes (contd.)

Figure 3-11 Point-to-point versus broadcast transmission

Throughput and Bandwidth

Throughput
Measures amount of data transmitted during given time period Capacity or bandwidth Quantity of bits transmitted per second

Bandwidth (strict definition)

Measures difference between highest and lowest frequencies medium can transmit Range of frequencies Measured in hertz (Hz)

Throughput

Table 3-1 Throughput measures

Baseband and Broadband

Baseband transmission
Digital signals sent through direct current (DC) pulses applied to wire Requires exclusive use of wires capacity
Transmit one signal (channel) at a time

Example: Ethernet

Broadband transmission
Signals modulated
Radiofrequency (RF) analog waves Uses different frequency ranges

Does not encode information as digital pulses

Transmission Flaws
Noise
Any undesirable influence degrading or distorting signal

Types of noise
EMI (electromagnetic interference)
EMI/RFI (radiofrequency interference)

Cross talk
NEXT (near end cross talk) Potential cause: improper termination

Environmental influences
Heat

Transmission Flaws (contd.)

Figure 3-12 Cross talk between wires in a cable

Transmission Flaws (contd.)

Attenuation
Loss of signals strength as it travels away from source

Signal boosting technology

Analog signals pass through amplifier
Noise also amplified

Regeneration
Digital signals retransmitted in original form Repeater: device regenerating digital signals

Amplifiers and repeaters

OSI model Physical layer

Transmission Flaws (contd.)

Latency
Delay between signal transmission and receipt

Causes
Cable length Intervening connectivity device

RTT (round trip time)

Time for packet to go from sender to receiver, then back from receiver to sender Measured in milliseconds

May cause network transmission errors

Common Media Characteristics

Selecting transmission media
Match networking needs with media characteristics

Physical media characteristics

Throughput Cost Size and scalability Connectors Noise immunity

Throughput
Most significant transmission method factor Causes of limitations
Laws of physics Signaling and multiplexing techniques Noise Devices connected to transmission medium

Fiber-optic cables allows faster throughput

Compared to copper or wireless connections

Cost
Precise costs difficult to pinpoint Media cost dependencies
Existing hardware, network size, labor costs

Variables influencing final cost

Installation cost New infrastructure cost versus reuse Maintenance and support costs Cost of lower transmission rate affecting productivity Cost of obsolescence

Noise Immunity
Noise distorts data signals
Distortion rate dependent upon transmission media
Fiber-optic: least susceptible to noise

Limit impact on network

Cable installation
Far away from powerful electromagnetic forces

Select media protecting signal from noise Antinoise algorithms

Size and Scalability

Three specifications
Maximum nodes per segment Maximum segment length Maximum network length

Maximum nodes per segment dependency

Attenuation and latency

Maximum segment length dependency

Attenuation and latency plus segment type

Size and Scalability (contd.)

Segment types
Populated: contains end nodes Unpopulated: No end nodes
Link segment

Segment length limitation

After certain distance, signal loses strength
Cannot be accurately interpreted

Connectors and Media Converters

Connectors
Hardware connecting wire to network device Specific to particular media type Affect costs
Installing and maintaining network Ease of adding new segments or nodes Technical expertise required to maintain network

Media converter
Hardware enabling networks or segments running on different media to interconnect and exchange signals

Connectors and Media Converters (contd.)

Figure 3-15 Copper wire-to-fiber media converter

Coaxial Cable

Figure 3-16 Coaxial cable

Central metal core (often copper)

Surrounded by insulator

Braided metal shielding (braiding or shield) Outer cover (sheath or jacket)

Coaxial Cable (contd.)

High noise resistance Advantage over twisted pair cabling
Carry signals farther before amplifier required

Disadvantage over twisted pair cabling

More expensive

Hundreds of specifications
RG specification number Differences: shielding and conducting cores
Transmission characteristics

Coaxial Cable (contd.)

Conducting core
American Wire Gauge (AWG) size

Data networks usage

RG-6: Used in modern cable TV connections, most common RG-8: Thicknet--obsolete RG-58: Thinnetalso obsolete for data networks RG-59: Used for short spans in modern cable TV connections

Coaxial Cable (contd.)

Figure 3-17 F-type connector

Figure 3-18 BNC Connector

Twisted Pair Cable

Color-coded insulated copper wire pairs
0.4 to 0.8 mm diameter Encased in a plastic sheath

Figure 3-19 Twisted pair cable

Twisted Pair Cable (contd.)

More wire pair twists per foot
More resistance to cross talk Higher-quality More expensive

Twist ratio
Twists per meter or foot

High twist ratio

Greater attenuation

Twisted Pair Cable (contd.)

Hundreds of different designs
Dependencies
Twist ratio, number of wire pairs, copper grade, shielding type, shielding materials

1 to 4200 wire pairs possible

Wiring standard specification

TIA/EIA 568

Twisted pair wiring types

Cat (category) 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6, and 6e, Cat 7 CAT 5 most often used in modern LANs

Twisted Pair Cable (contd.)

Advantages
Relatively inexpensive Flexible Easy installation Spans significant distance before requiring repeater Accommodates several different topologies Handles current faster networking transmission rates

Two categories
STP (shielded twisted pair) UTP (unshielded twisted pair)

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

Individually insulated Surrounded by metallic substance shielding (foil)
Barrier to external electromagnetic forces Contains electrical energy of signals inside May be grounded

Figure 3-20 STP cable

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

One or more insulated wire pairs
Encased in plastic sheath No additional shielding
Less expensive, less noise resistance

Figure 3-21 UTP cable

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) (contd.)

EIA/TIA standards
Cat 3 (Category 3) Cat 4 (Category 4) Cat 5 (Category 5) Cat 5e (Enhanced Category 5) Cat 6 (Category 6) Cat 6e (Enhanced Category 6) Cat 7 (Category 7)

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) (contd.)

Figure 3-22 A Cat 5 UTP cable with pairs untwisted

Comparing STP and UTP

Throughput
STP and UTP transmit the same rates

Cost
STP and UTP vary

Noise immunity
STP more noise resistant UTP subject to techniques to offset noise

Size and scalability

STP and UTP maximum segment length
100 meters

Comparing STP and UTP (contd.)

Connector
STP and UTP use RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) Telephone connections use RJ-11 (Registered Jack 11)

Figure 3-23 RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors

Terminating Twisted Pair Cable

Patch cable
Relatively short cable Connectors at both ends

Proper cable termination techniques

Basic requirement for two nodes to communicate

Poor terminations
Lead to loss or noise

TIA/EIA standards
TIA/EIA 568A TIA/EIA 568B

Figure 3-24 TIA/EIA 568A standard terminations

Figure 3-25 TIA/EIA 568B standard terminations

Figure 3-26 RJ-45 terminations on a crossover cable

Straight-through cable
Terminate RJ-45 plugs at both ends identically

Crossover cable
Transmit and receive wires on one end reversed

Terminating Twisted Pair Cable (contd.)

Figure 3-27 Wire cutter

Termination tools
Wire cutter Wire stripper Crimping tool

Terminating Twisted Pair Cable (contd.)

Figure 3-28 Wire stripper

Figure 3-29 Crimping tool

After making cables

Verify data transmit and receive

Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable (fiber)
One (or several) glass or plastic fibers at its center (core)

Data transmission
Pulsing light sent from laser LED (light-emitting diode) through central fibers

Cladding
Layer of glass or plastic surrounding fibers Different density from glass or plastic in strands Reflects light back to core
Allows fiber to bend

Fiber-Optic Cable (contd.)

Plastic buffer
Outside cladding Protects cladding and core Opaque
Absorbs any escaping light

Kevlar strands (polymeric fiber) surround plastic buffer Plastic sheath covers Kevlar strands

Figure 3-30 A fiber-optic cable

Different varieties
Based on intended use and manufacturer

Two categories
Single-mode Multimode

SMF (Single-Mode Fiber)

Uses narrow core (< 10 microns in diameter)
Laser generated light travels over one path
Little reflection

Light does not disperse

Accommodates
Highest bandwidths, longest distances Connects carriers two facilities

Costs prohibit typical LANs, WANs use

SMF (Single-Mode Fiber) (contd.)

Figure 3-31 Transmission over single-mode fiber-optic cable

MMF (Multimode Fiber)

Uses core with larger diameter than single-mode fiber
Common size: 62.5 microns

Laser or LED generated light pulses travel at different angles Common uses
Cables connecting router to a switch Cables connecting server on network backbone

MMF (Multimode Fiber) (contd.)

Figure 3-32 Transmission over multimode fiber-optic cable

MMF (Multimode Fiber) (contd.)

Benefits
Extremely high throughput Very high resistance to noise Excellent security Ability to carry signals for much longer distances before requiring repeaters than copper cable Industry standard for high-speed networking

Drawback
More expensive than twisted pair cable Requires special equipment to splice

MMF (Multimode Fiber) (contd.)

Throughput
Reliable transmission rates
Can reach 100 gigabits (or 100,000 megabits) per second per channel (but only for singlemode, not multimode)

Cost
Most expensive transmission medium

Connectors
ST (straight tip) SC (subscriber connector or standard connector) LC (local connector) MT-RJ (mechanical transfer registered jack)

MMF (Multimode Fiber) (contd.)

Noise immunity
Unaffected by EMI

Size and scalability

Segment lengths vary
150 to 40,000 meters Due primarily to optical loss

Figure 3-33 ST (straight tip) connector

Figure 3-34 SC (subscriber connector or standard connector)

Figure 3-35 LC (local connector)

Figure 3-36 MT-RJ (mechanical transferregister jack) connector

DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment) Connector Cables
DTE (data terminal equipment)
Any end-user device

DCE (data circuit-terminating equipment)

Device that processes signals Supplies synchronization clock signal

DTE and DCE Connector Cables (contd.)

DTE and DCE connections
Serial
Pulses flow along single transmission line Sequentially

Serial cable
Carries serial transmissions

DTE and DCE Connector Cables (contd.)

Figure 3-37 DB-9 connector

Figure 3-38 DB-25 connector

DTE and DCE Connector Cables (contd.)

RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232)
EIA/TIA standard Physical layer specification
Signal voltage, timing, compatible interface characteristics

Connector types
RJ-45 connectors, DB-9 connectors, DB-25 connectors

RS-232 used between PC and router today RS-232 connections

Straight-through, crossover, rollover

Structured Cabling
Cable plant
Hardware making up enterprise-wide cabling system

Standard
TIA/EIA joint 568 Commercial Building Wiring Standard

Figure 3-39 TIA/EIA structured cabling in an enterprise

Figure 3-40 TIA/EIA structured cabling in a building

Structured Cabling (contd.)

Components
Entrance facilities MDF (main distribution frame) Cross-connect facilities IDF (intermediate distribution frame) Backbone wiring Telecommunications closet Horizontal wiring Work area

Figure 3-42 Patch panel Figure 3-41 Patch panel

Figure 3-44 A standard TIA/EIA outlet Figure 3-43 Horizontal wiring

Structured Cabling (contd.)

Table 3-2 TIA/EIA specifications for backbone cabling

Figure 3-45 A typical UTP cabling installation

Best Practices for Cable Installation and Management

Choosing correct cabling
Follow manufacturers installation guidelines Follow TIA/EIA standards

Network problems
Often traced to poor cable installation techniques

Installation tips to prevent Physical layer failures