Introduction to
fluid mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the action of forces
on fluids at rest as well as in motion.
• If the fluids are at rest, the study of them is called fluid statics.
• If the fluids are in motion, where pressure forces are not
considered, the study of them is called fluid Kinematics
• If the fluids are in motion and the pressure forces are considered,
the study of them is called fluid dynamics.
Fluid
• Matter exists in two states- the solid state and the fluid state. This
classification of matter is based on the spacing between different
molecules of matter as well as on the behavior of matter when
subjected to stresses.
• Because molecules in solid state are spaced very closely, solids
possess compactness and rigidity of form. The molecules in fluid can
move more freely within the fluid mass and therefore the fluids do
not possess any rigidity of form.
• Thus Fluid exist in two form:-
• Liquid • Gas
Properties
of fluids
Density or Mass Density: -
Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of
a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called
density. It is denoted by the symbol 𝞀 (rho). The unit of mass density
in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e., kg/m³. The density of liquids may
be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the
variation of pressure and temperature.
Mathematically, mass density is written as ,
𝞀 = Mass of fluid
Volume of fluid
The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm³ or 1000 kg/m³.
Specific Weight or Weight Density:-
Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the
weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is
called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol 𝞈.
Mathematically,
𝞈 = Weight of fluid/Volume of fluid
= (Mass of fluid) * × Acceleration due to gravity (g)
Volume of fluid
= 𝞀g
The value of specific weight or weight density (𝞈) for water is 9.81 x
1000 Newton/m³ in SI units.
Specific Volume: - Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of
a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called
specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Specific volume = Volume of fluid = 1
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid
Volume of fluid
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as
m³/kg. It is commonly applied to gases.
Specific Gravity:- Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight
density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a
standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases,
the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative
density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
Mathematically,
S(for liquids) = Weight density (density) of liquid
Weight density (density) of water
S (for gases) = Weight density (density) of gas
Weight density (density) of air
Thus weight density of a liquid = S * Weight density of water
= S x 1000 x 9.81 N/m³
The density of a liquid = S * Density of water = S x 1000 kg/m³.
If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be
equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example,
the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 =
13600 kg/m³.
Viscosity: - Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance
to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart, move one over the other at
different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together
with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The
top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer
causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional
to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol τ (Tau).
Mathematically,
Where, 𝝻 (called mu) is the constant of
proportionality and is known as the co-
efficient of dynamic viscosity du or only
viscosity. represents the rate of shear strain
or rate of shear deformation or velocity
gradient. Its unit is N.s/m2
Kinematic Viscosity:- It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic
viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called
'nu'. Its unit is m2/sec.
Newton's Law of Viscosity: - It states that the shear stress (t) on a fluid
element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The
constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of viscosity.
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and
the fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian
fluids.
Types of Fluids
Ideal fluid
A fluid is said to be ideal when it cannot be compressed and
the viscosity doesn’t fall in the category of an ideal fluid. It is
an imaginary fluid which doesn’t exist in reality.
Real fluid
All the fluids are real as all the fluid possess viscosity.
Newtonian fluid
When the fluid obeys Newton’s law of viscosity, it is known
as a Newtonian fluid.
Non-Newtonian fluid
When the fluid doesn’t obey Newton’s law of viscosity, it is
known as Non-Newtonian fluid.
Types of Fluids
Ideal plastic fluid
When the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient
and shear stress is more than the yield value, it is known as
ideal plastic fluid.
Incompressible fluid
When the density of the fluid doesn’t change with the
application of external force, it is known as an
incompressible fluid.
Compressible fluid
When the density of the fluid changes with the application of
external force, it is known as compressible fluid.
Pressure
It is defined as the physical force exerted on an object. The force
applied is perpendicular to the surface of objects per unit area. The
basic formula for pressure is F/A (Force per unit area).
The units of pressure are :
(i) kg/m2 and kgf/cm2 in MKS units
(ii) Newton /m2 or N/cm2 and N/mm2 in SI units
N/m2 is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa.
Other commonly used units of pressure are :
1kPa = kilo pascal = 1000 N/m2
1bar = 100 kPa = 105 N/m2
Pascal's Law
It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static
fluid is equal in all directions.
Pressure Variation In A Fluid At Rest : - The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is
obtained by the Hydro- static Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a
vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that
point.
Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric And Vacuum Pressures: - The pressure on a fluid is
measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the absolute zero
or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system, pressure is
measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus: 1.
Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure.2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the
help of a pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as
datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero. Vacuum pressure is
defined as the pres- sure below the atmospheric pressure. The relationship between the
absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in Fig. 2.7
(i) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15°C is 101.3 kN/m² or 10.13 N/cm² in SI
unit. In case of MKS units, it is equal to 1.033 kgf/cm².
(ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water.
Unit 1
Fluid Statics
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the
Hydrostatic Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a
vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of
fluid at that point.
P = ρgh
where,
P = pressure
ρ = density of fluid
g = acceleration due
to gravity
h = depth
Buoyancy & Centre of Buoyancy
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is
exerted by the body. This upward force is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the force of
Buoyancy or simply Buoyancy.
Centre of Buoyancy is defined as the point, through which
the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
Archimedes Principle: - It states that the upward buoyant
force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether
fully or partially, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the
body displaces.
Archimedes principle is a law of physics fundamental
to fluid mechanics. It was formulated
by Archimedes of Syracuse.
Meta Centre & Meta Centric Height
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when
the body is tilted by a small angle.
It can also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the
force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the
body is given a small angular displacement.
The distance between the meta centre of a floating body and centre
of gravity of the body is called meta centric height.
Conditions of Equilibrium for
Submerged Bodies
Stable Equilibrium: - When W = FB and point B is above G,
the body is said to be in stable condition.
Unstable Equilibrium: - If W = FB but B is below G the body
is said to be in Unstable Equilibrium.
Neutral Equilibrium: - If W = FB and B and G are at same
point the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
Conditions of Equilibrium for Floating
Bodies
Stable Equilibrium: - If the point M is above G, the floating
body is said to be in stable Equilibrium.
Unstable Equilibrium: - If the point M is below G, the floating
body is said to be in unstable Equilibrium.
Neutral Equilibrium: - If the point M is at C.G. of the body,
the floating body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
