Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Kernel Data Structures
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating Systems

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 Objectives

 To describe the basic organization of computer

systems
 To provide a grand tour of the major
components of operating systems
 To give an overview of the many types of
computing environments
 To explore several open-source operating
systems

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 Computer-System Architecture

 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault
tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is
assigned a special task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs
all tasks

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 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design
 Multi-chip and multicore
 Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate systems

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 Clustered Systems

 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring
each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations

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 Clustered Systems

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 Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU

switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU
scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in
and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
 Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
 Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite
loop, processes modifying each other or the
operating system

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 Operating-System Operations (cont.)
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and
other system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is
running user code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged,
only executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return
from call resets it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for
guest VMs

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time
period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical
clock.
 Operating system set the counter (privileged
instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time

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 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of
work within the system. Program is a passive entity,
process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one
at a time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user,
some operating system running concurrently on one
or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads
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 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions

must be in memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the
program must be in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory
and when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer
response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are
currently being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and
data to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as
needed

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 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information
storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage
unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk
drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed,
capacity, data-transfer rate, access method
(sequential or random)
 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who
can access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage
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 Mass-Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in
main memory or data that must be kept for a “long”
period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk
subsystem and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic
tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times)
and RW (read-write)
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 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be

explicit or implicit

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 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

 Multitasking environments must be careful to use

most recent value, no matter where it is stored in the
storage hierarchy

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache

coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the
most recent value in their cache
 Distributed environment situation even more complex
 Several copies of a datum can exist
 Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

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 I/O Subsystem
 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of
hardware devices from the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering
(storing data temporarily while it is being
transferred), caching (storing parts of data in
faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of
other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

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 Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms,
viruses, identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to
determine who can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name
and associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of
that user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and controls managed, then also associated
with each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to
effective ID with more rights

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 Kernel Data Structures

 Many similar to standard programming data structures

 Singly linked list

 Doubly linked list

 Circular linked list

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 Kernel Data Structures

 Binary search tree

left <= right
 Search performance is O(n)
 Balanced binary search tree is O(lg
n)

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 Kernel Data Structures

 Hash function can create a hash map

 Bitmap – string of n binary digits representing the status

of n items
 Linux data structures defined in
include files <linux/list.h>, <linux/kfifo.h>,
<linux/rbtree.h>

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 Computing Environments - Traditional

 Stand-alone general purpose machines

 But blurred as most systems interconnect with
others (i.e., the Internet)
 Portals provide web access to internal systems
 Network computers (thin clients) are like Web
terminals
 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless
networks
 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home
systems use firewalls to protect home
computers from Internet attacks

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 Computing Environments - Mobile

 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

 What is the functional difference between them
and a “traditional” laptop?
 Extra feature – more OS features (GPS,
gyroscope)
 Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data
networks for connectivity
 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

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 Computing Environments – Distributed

 Distributed computiing
 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous,
systems networked together
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most
common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features
between systems across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to
exchange messages
 Illusion of a single system

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 Computing Environments – Client-Server

 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests
generated by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to
client to request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients
to store and retrieve files

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 Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer

 Another model of distributed

system
 P2P does not distinguish clients
and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered
peers
 May each act as client, server or
both
 Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with
central lookup service on
network, or
 Broadcast request for service
and respond to requests for
service via discovery protocol
 Examples include Napster and
Gnutella, Voice over IP (VoIP)
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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

 Allows operating systems to run applications

within other OSes
 Vast and growing industry
 Emulation used when source CPU type different
from target type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
 Generally slowest method
 When computer language not compiled to
native code – Interpretation
 Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU,
running guest OSes also natively compiled
 Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each
running applications, all on native WinXP host
OS
 VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides
virtualization services

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

 Use cases involve laptops and desktops running

multiple OSes for exploration or compatibility
 Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as
a guest
 Developing apps for multiple OSes without
having multiple systems
 QA testing applications without having multiple
systems
 Executing and managing compute environments
within data centers
 VMM can run natively, in which case they are also
the host
 There is no general purpose host then (VMware
ESX and Citrix XenServer)

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a

network
 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses
virtualization as the base for it functionality.
 Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual
machines, petabytes of storage available across the
Internet, pay based on usage
 Many types
 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to
pay
 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own
use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud
components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications
available via the Internet (i.e., word processor)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for
application use via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage
available over Internet (i.e., storage available for backup
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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Cloud computing environments composed of

traditional OSes, plus VMMs, plus cloud
management tools
 Internet connectivity requires security like
firewalls
 Load balancers spread traffic across multiple
applications

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 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of

computers
 Vary considerable, special purpose, limited
purpose OS, real-time OS
 Use expanding
 Many other special computing environments as well
 Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an
OS
 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
 Processing must be done within constraint
 Correct operation only if constraints met

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 Open-Source Operating Systems

 Operating systems made available in source-code

format rather than just binary closed-source
 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights
Management (DRM) movement
 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which
has “copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX
(including core of Mac OS X), and many more
 Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows),
Virtualbox (open source and free on many platforms -
http://www.virtualbox.com)
 Use to run guest operating systems for
exploration

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 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018