Lecture 3:

Functions
How to reuse code
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
int threeExpFour = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i = i + 1) {
threeExpFour = threeExpFour * 3;
}
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
return 0;
}
 #include <iostream>
Copy-paste using namespace std;

coding int main() {

int threeExpFour = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i = i + 1) {
threeExpFour = threeExpFour * 3;
}
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
int sixExpFive = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i = i + 1) {
sixExpFive = sixExpFive * 6;
}
cout << "6^5 is " << sixExpFive << endl;
return 0;
}
 #include <iostream>
Copy-paste using namespace std;

coding int main() {

int threeExpFour = 1;

(bad) for (int i = 0; i < 4; i = i + 1) {

threeExpFour = threeExpFour * 3;
}
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
int sixExpFive = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i = i + 1) {
sixExpFive = sixExpFive * 6;
}
cout << "6^5 is " << sixExpFive << endl;
int twelveExpTen = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1) {
twelveExpTen = twelveExpTen * 12;
}
cout << "12^10 is " << twelveExpTen << endl;
return 0;
}
 With a #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
function // some code which raises an arbitrary integer
// to an arbitrary power

int main() {
int threeExpFour = raiseToPower(3, 4);
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
return 0;
}
 With a #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
function // some code which raises an arbitrary integer
// to an arbitrary power

int main() {
int threeExpFour = raiseToPower(3, 4);
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
int sixExpFive = raiseToPower(6, 5);
cout << "6^5 is " << sixExpFive << endl;
return 0;
}
 With a #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
function // some code which raises an arbitrary integer
// to an arbitrary power

int main() {
int threeExpFour = raiseToPower(3, 4);
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
int sixExpFive = raiseToPower(6, 5);
cout << "6^5 is " << sixExpFive << endl;
int twelveExpTen = raiseToPower(12, 10);
cout << "12^10 is " << twelveExpTen << endl;
return 0;
}
 Why define your own functions?
• Readability: sqrt(5) is clearer than copy-pasting
in an algorithm to compute the square root
• Maintainability: To change the algorithm, just
change the function (vs changing it
everywhere you ever used it)
• Code reuse: Lets other people use algorithms
you’ve implemented
Function Declaration Syntax
Function name

int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}
Function Declaration Syntax
Return type

int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}
 Function Declaration Syntax
Argument 1

int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}

• Argument order matters:

– raiseToPower(2,3) is 2^3=8
– raiseToPower(3,2) is 3^2=9
 Function Declaration Syntax
Argument 2

int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}

• Argument order matters:

– raiseToPower(2,3) is 2^3=8
– raiseToPower(3,2) is 3^2=9
 Function Declaration Syntax

signature int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}
 Function Declaration Syntax

int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
body result = result * base;
}
return result;
}
Function Declaration Syntax

int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent)

{
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}
Return statement
 #include <iostream>
using namespace std;

Function int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {

declaration int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
return result;
}
Function invocation
int main() {
int threeExpFour = raiseToPower(3, 4);
cout << "3^4 is " << threeExpFour << endl;
return 0;
}
 Returning a value
• Up to one value may be returned; it must be the same type as
the return type.

int foo() char* foo()

{ {
return "hello"; // error return "hello"; // ok
} }
 Returning a value
• Up to one value may be returned; it must be the same type as
the return type.
• If no values are returned, give the function a void return type

void printNumber(int num) {

cout << "number is " << num << endl;
}

int main() {
printNumber(4); // number is 4
return 0;
}
 Returning a value
• Up to one value may be returned; it must be the same type as
the return type.
• If no values are returned, give the function a void return type
– Note that you cannot declare a variable of type void

int main() {
void x; // ERROR
return 0;
}
 Returning a value
• Return statements don’t necessarily need to be at the end.
• Function returns as soon as a return statement is executed.
void printNumberIfEven(int num) {
if (num % 2 == 1) {
cout << "odd number" << endl;
return;
}
cout << "even number; number is "
<< num << endl;
}

int main() {
int x =
4;
printNumberI
fEven(x);
// even number; number is 3
int y = 5;
 Argument Type Matters

void printOnNewLine(int x)
{
cout << x << endl;
}

• printOnNewLine(3) works
• printOnNewLine("hello") will not compile
 Argument Type Matters

void printOnNewLine(char *x)

{
cout << x << endl;
}

• printOnNewLine(3) will not compile

• printOnNewLine("hello") works
 Argument Type Matters
void printOnNewLine(int x)
{
cout << x << endl;
}

void printOnNewLine(char *x)

{
cout << x << endl;
}

• printOnNewLine(3) works
• printOnNewLine("hello") also works
 Function Overloading
void printOnNewLine(int x)
{
cout << "Integer: " << x << endl;
}

void printOnNewLine(char *x)

{
cout << "String: " << x << endl;
}

• Many functions with the same name, but

different arguments
• The function called is the one whose
arguments match the invocation
 Function Overloading
void printOnNewLine(int x)
{
cout << "Integer: " << x << endl;
}

void printOnNewLine(char *x)

{
cout << "String: " << x << endl;
}

• printOnNewLine(3) prints “Integer: 3”

• printOnNewLine(“hello”) prints “String: hello”
 Function Overloading
void printOnNewLine(int x)
{
cout << "1 Integer: " << x << endl;
}

void printOnNewLine(int x, int y)

{
cout << "2 Integers: " << x << " and " << y << endl;
}

• printOnNewLine(3) prints “1 Integer: 3”

• printOnNewLine(2, 3) prints “2 Integers: 2 and 3”
• Function declarations need to occur before invocations

int foo()
{
return bar()*2; // ERROR - bar hasn’t been declared yet
}

int bar()
{
return 3;
}
• Function declarations need to occur before invocations
– Solution 1: reorder function declarations

int bar()
{
return 3;
}

int foo()
{
return bar()*2; // ok
}
• Function declarations need to occur before invocations
– Solution 1: reorder function declarations
– Solution 2: use a function prototype; informs the compiler
you’ll implement it later

int bar(); function prototype

int foo()
{
return bar()*2; // ok
}

int bar()
{
return 3;
}
• Function prototypes should match the signature of the
method, though argument names don’t matter

int square(int); function prototype

int cube(int x)
{
return x*square(x);
}

int square(int x)
{
return x*x;
}
• Function prototypes should match the signature of the
method, though argument names don’t matter

int square(int x); function prototype

int cube(int x)
{
return x*square(x);
}

int square(int x)
{
return x*x;
}
• Function prototypes should match the signature of the
method, though argument names don’t matter

int square(int z); function prototype

int cube(int x)
{
return x*square(x);
}

int square(int x)
{
return x*x;
}
• Function prototypes are generally put into separate
header files
– Separates specification of the function from its
implementation

// myLib.h - header // myLib.cpp - implementation

// contains prototypes #include "myLib.h"

int square(int); int cube(int x)

int cube (int); {
return x*square(x);
}

int square(int x)
{
return x*x;
}
 Recursio
n
• Functions can call themselves.
• fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2) can be easily
expressed via a recursive implementation

int fibonacci(int n) {
if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
return 1;
} else {
return fibonacci(n-2) +
fibonacci(n-1);
}
}
 Recursio
n
• Functions can call themselves.
• fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2) can be easily
expressed via a recursive implementation

int fibonacci(int n) {
if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
base case return 1;
} else {
return fibonacci(n-2) +
fibonacci(n-1);
}
}
 Recursio
n
• Functions can call themselves.
• fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2) can be easily
expressed via a recursive implementation

int fibonacci(int n) {
if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
return 1;
} else {
recursive step return fibonacci(n-2) +
fibonacci(n-1);
}
}
 Global Variables
• How many times is function foo() called? Use
a global variable to determine this.
– Can be accessed from any function

int numCalls = 0; Global variable

void foo() {
++numCalls;
}

int main() {
foo(); foo(); foo();
cout << numCalls << endl; // 3
}
 int numCalls = 0;

Scope int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {

numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
• Scope: where a result = result * base;
variable was declared, }
determines where it return result;
}
can be accessed from
int max(int num1, int num2) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result;
if (num1 > num2) {
result = num1;
}
else {
result = num2;
}
return result;
}
 int numCalls = 0;

Scope int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {

numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
• Scope: where a result = result * base;
variable was declared, }
determines where it return result;

can be accessed from }

• numCalls has global int max(int num1, int num2) {
scope – can be numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result;
accessed from any
if (num1 > num2) {
function result = num1;
}
else {
result = num2;
}
return result;
}
 int numCalls = 0;

Scope int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {

numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
• Scope: where a result = result * base;
variable was declared, }
determines where it return result;

can be accessed from }

• numCalls has global int max(int num1, int num2) {
scope – can be numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result;
accessed from any
if (num1 > num2) {
function result = num1;
• result has function }
scope – each function else {
result = num2;
can have its own }
separate variable return result;
named result }
int numCalls = 0;
int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
// A
return result;
}
int max(int num1, int num2) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1; Global scope
int result;
if (num1 > num2) { int
result = num1; numCalls

}
else {
result = num2;
}
// B raiseToPower function scope max function scope
return result;
}
int int int int int int
base exponent result num1 num2 result
int numCalls = 0;
int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
// A • At A, variables marked in
return result;
}
green are in scope
int max(int num1, int num2) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1; Global scope
int result;
if (num1 > num2) { int
result = num1; numCalls

}
else {
result = num2;
}
// B raiseToPower function scope max function scope
return result;
}
int int int int int int
base exponent result A
num1 num2 result
int numCalls = 0;
int raiseToPower(int base, int exponent) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1;
int result = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < exponent; i = i + 1) {
result = result * base;
}
// A • At B, variables marked in
return result;
}
blue are in scope
int max(int num1, int num2) {
numCalls = numCalls + 1; Global scope
int result;
if (num1 > num2) { int
result = num1; numCalls

}
else {
result = num2;
}
// B raiseToPower functi on scope max functi on scope
return result;
}
int int int int int int
base exponent result B
num1 num2 result
double squareRoot(double num) {
double low = 1.0;
double high = num;
for (int i = 0; i < 30; i = i + 1) {
double estimate = (high + low) / 2;
if (estimate*estimate > num) { squareRoot function scope
double newHigh = estimate;
high = newHigh;
double double double
} else { num low high
double newLow = estimate;
low = newLow;
}
} for loop scope
return (high + low) / 2;
}
double
• Loops and if/else int i estimate

statements also have

their own scopes If statement scope else statement scope

– Loop counters are in the

same scope as the body of double
newHigh
double
newLow

the for loop

double squareRoot(double num) {
double low = 1.0;
double high = num;
for (int i = 0; i < 30; i = i + 1) {
double estimate = (high + low) / 2;
if (estimate*estimate > num) { squareRoot function scope
double newHigh = estimate;
high = newHigh;
double double double
} else { num low high
A

double newLow = estimate;

low = newLow;
}
} for loop scope
// A
return estimate; // ERROR
double
} int i estimate

• Cannot access variables

that are out of scope If statement scope else stateme nt scope

double double
newHigh newLow
double squareRoot(double num) {
double low = 1.0;
double high = num;
for (int i = 0; i < 30; i = i + 1) {
double estimate = (high + low) / 2;
if (estimate*estimate > num) { squareRoot function scope
double newHigh = estimate;
high = newHigh; double double double
A
} else { num low high
double newLow = estimate;
low = newLow;
}
if (i == 29) for loop scope
return estimate; // B
}
double
return -1; // A int i estimate
B
}
• Cannot access variables
that are out of scope If statement scope else statement scope

• Solution 1: move the double double

newLow
code
newHigh
double squareRoot(double num) {
double low = 1.0;
double high = num;
double estimate;
for (int i = 0; i < 30; i = i +
1)estimate
{ = (high + low) / 2; squareRoot function scope
if (estimate*estimate > num) {
double newHigh = estimate;
double double double double
high = newHigh; num low high estimate
A

} else {
double newLow = estimate;
low = newLow;
} for loop scope
}
return estimate; // A
} int i

• Cannot access variables

that are out of scope If statement scope else stateme nt scope

• Solution 2: declare the double double

variable in a higher scope

newHigh newLow
 Pass by value vs by reference
• So far we’ve been passing everything by value –
makes a copy of the variable; changes to the variable
within the function don’t occur outside the function
// pass-by-value
void increment(int a) {
a = a + 1;
cout << "a in increment
" << a << endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3;
increment(q); // does nothing a in increment 4
cout << "q in main " << q << endl;
}
q in main 3
 Pass by value vs by reference
main functi on scope

q=3

// pass-by-value
void increment(int a) {
a = a + 1;
cout << "a in increment
" << a << endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3; // HERE
increment(q); // does nothing a in increment 4
cout << "q in main " << q <<
endl;
q in main 3
}
 Pass by value vs by reference
main functi on scope increment functi on scope

q=3 a=3

// pass-by-value
void increment(int a) { // HERE
a = a + 1;
cout << "a in increment " << a
<< endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3;
increment(q); // does nothing a in increment 4
cout << "q in main " << q << endl;
}
q in main 3
 Pass by value vs by reference
main functi on scope increment functi on scope

q=3 a=4

// pass-by-value
void increment(int a) {
a = a + 1; // HERE
cout << "a in increment
" << a << endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3;
increment(q); // does nothing a in increment 4
cout << "q in main " << q << endl;
}
q in main 3
 Pass by value vs by reference
• If you want to modify the original variable as
opposed to making a copy, pass the variable by
reference (int &a instead of int a)
// pass-by-value
void increment(int &a) {
a = a + 1;
cout << "a in increment
" << a << endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3;
increment(q); // works a in increment 4
cout << "q in main "
<< q << endl;
q in main 4
}
 Pass by value vs by reference
main functi on scope

q=3

// pass-by-value
void increment(int &a) {
a = a + 1;
cout << "a in increment
" << a << endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3; // HERE
increment(q); // works a in increment 4
cout << "q in main "
<< q << endl;
q in main 4
}
 Pass by value vs by reference
main function scope increment function scope

q=3 a

// pass-by-value
void increment(int &a) { // HERE
a = a + 1;
cout << "a in increment " << a
<< endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3;
increment(q); // works a in increment 4
cout << "q in main "
<< q << endl;
q in main 4
}
 Pass by value vs by reference
main function scope increment function scope

q=4 a

// pass-by-value
void increment(int &a) {
a = a + 1; // HERE
cout << "a in increment
" << a << endl;
}
int main() {
Output
int q = 3;
increment(q); // works a in increment 4
cout << "q in main "
<< q << endl;
q in main 4
}
 Implementing Swap
void swap(int &a, int &b) {
int t = a;
a = b;
b =
t;
}
int main() {
int q = 3;
int r = 5;
swap(q, r);
cout << "q " << q << endl; // q 5
cout << "r " << r << endl; // r 3
}
 Implementing Swap
void swap(int &a, int &b) { main functi on scope
int t = a;
a = b;
b =
q=3 r=5
t;
}

int main() {
int q =
3;
int r = 5; // HERE
swap(q, r);
cout << "q " << q << endl; // q 5
cout << "r " << r << endl; // r 3
}
 Implementing Swap
void swap(int &a, int &b) { // HERE main function scope
int t = a;
a = b;
b =
t; q=3 r=5
}
int main() {
int q = 3;
int r = 5;
swap(q, r); swap function scope
cout << "q " << q << endl; // q 5
cout << "r " << r << endl; // r 3
} a b
 Implementing Swap
void swap(int &a, int &b) { main function scope
int t = a; // HERE
a = b;
b =
t; q=3 r=5
}
int main() {
int q = 3;
int r = 5;
swap(q, r); swap function scope
cout << "q " << q << endl; // q 5
cout << "r " << r << endl; // r 3
} a b t=3
 Implementing Swap
void swap(int &a, int &b) { main function scope
int t = a;
a = b; // HERE
b = t;
} q=5 r=5

int main() {
int q = 3;
int r = 5;
swap(q, r); swap function scope
cout << "q " << q << endl; // q 5
cout << "r " << r << endl; // r 3
} a b t=3
 Implementing Swap
void swap(int &a, int &b) { main function scope
int t = a;
a = b;
b = t; // HERE
} q=5 r=3

int main() {
int q = 3;
int r = 5;
swap(q, r); swap function scope
cout << "q " << q << endl; // q 5
cout << "r " << r << endl; // r 3
} a b t=3
 Returning multiple values
• The return statement only allows you to
return 1 value. Passing output variables by
reference overcomes this limitation.
int divide(int numerator, int denominator, int &remainder) {
remainder = numerator % denominator;
return numerator / denominator;
}

int main()
{ int num =
14; int den
= 4; int
rem;
int result =
divide(num,
den, rem);
 Libraries
• Libraries are generally distributed as the
header file containing the prototypes, and a
binary .dll/.so file containing the
(compiled) implementation
– Don’t need to share your .cpp code

// myLib.h – header
// contains prototypes
double squareRoot(double num); myLib.dll
• Library user only needs to know the function prototypes (in
the header file), not the implementation source code (in the
.cpp file)
– The Linker (part of the compiler) takes care of locating the
implementation of functions in the .dll file at compile time

// myLib.h – header
// contains prototypes
myLib.dll
double squareRoot(double num);

// libraryUser.cpp – some other guy’s code

#include "myLib.h"

double fourthRoot(double num)

{ return
squareRoot(squareRoot(num));
}
 Final Notes
• You don’t actually need to implement
raiseToPower and squareRoot yourself; cmath
(part of the standard library) contains
functions pow and sqrt

#include <cmath>

double fourthRoot(double num) {

return sqrt(sqrt(num));
}
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

6.096 Introduction to
C++
January (IAP) 2011

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