Lecture 02

Earthquake
Magnitude
and
Intensity
 Earthquake Magnitude
Magnitude is a number that
characterizes the relative size of an
earthquake.

It is based on measurement of the

maximum motion recorded by
a Seismograph

Richter Scale (ML)

Charles F. Richter (1935) introduced the concept of earthquake magnitude. His original
definition was

ML = log (A/A0) ……………..(1.1)

where A is the maximum trace amplitude in micrometers recorded on a standard seismometer

and A0 is the amplitude of the smallest detectable wave (or standard wave).

Readings from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with station-specific
corrections to obtain ML.L value.
Body-Wave Magnitude (mb)
The standard body-wave magnitude formula is
mb = log10(A/T) + Q(D,h) …….…….(1.2)

where A is the amplitude of ground motion (in microns);

T is the corresponding period (in seconds); and Q(D,h) is a correction factor that is a function of
distance, D (degrees), between epicenter and station and focal depth, h (in kilometers), of the
earthquake. Epicente
Station
r

h
D

Surface-Wave Magnitude (MS)

The standard surface-wave formula is
MS = log10 (A/T) + 1.66 log10 (D) + 3.30 ……….(1.3)
 Moment Magnitude (Mw)
The various magnitude scales (ML, mb, Ms)
underestimate the energy released in case of d
large earthquakes. Seismologists lave developed
a standard magnitude scale known a moment b

magnitude, that is calculated using the moment

(M0) developed during earthquake fault rupture. b

It depends on physical dimensions of rupture

(area A), shear modulus of rock (G) and average
displacement (d) of fault plane. Fig. shows a
schematic diagram of strained fault just after
rupture. A couple of shear forces acting on either
side of the fault act a distance ‘b’ apart,
producing a moment M0 = F b.
If ‘d’ is the displacement, the shear strain (g) developed by the couple = d/b
 Shear stress (t) = G  Shear strain (g) = G  (d/b)
\The shear force F = Shear stress (t)  Area (A) = G (d/b) A ……….(1.4)

Therefore, the moment can be computed as

M0 = F b = {G (d/b) A} b = G A d .…...……..(1.5)
The moment magnitude can be computed as
MW = log(M0)/1.5  10.7 [where M0 is in dyne-cm] ….....(1.6a)
MW = log(M0)/1.5  4.0 [where M0 is in kN-m] .……….(1.6b)

Potential energy is stored in the crust in the form of built-up stress.

During an earthquake, this stored energy is transformed and results in Cracks and
deformation in rocks, Heat and Radiated seismic energy (Es)

Very small portion of the moment is released in the form of energy, given by
ES = M0/20,000 ..…………...(1.7)
Relating energy released (Es) in earthquake to moment M0 [Kanamori (1977)]
Fig. 1.8 shows the approximate relationships between different earthquake magnitude scales.
As shown in Fig. 1.8, local magnitude ML, body wave magnitude mb and surface wave
magnitude Ms would saturate at different magnitudes.

It is commonly observed that, after a large earthquake, the monitoring centers would first
promulgate a magnitude but only to revise it upward several minutes or couple of hours later.

One of the major reasons is that the first calculated magnitude is a saturated m b, being updated
after Ms (with higher saturation point) or Mw (that would not saturate) become available.

Fig. 1.8: Comparison among different earthquake magnitude scales

 Empirical Relationships with
Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
Commonly used empirical relationships to estimate peak ground acceleration (PGA) values from
epicentral and hypocentral distance and magnitude data are mentioned here.

M is used where magnitude scale is not specified, explicitly

Re and Rh are used for epicentral and hypocentral distance respectively

H is used for focal depth in kilometers,

Z is non-dimensional peak ground acceleration (horizontal component). Unless specified

differently, all distances are in kilometers (km), and Z in units of ‘g’.

Peak ground acceleration (in units of g) has been related to R e by

Z = 0.0069 e(1.64 M)/{1.1 e(1.1 M) + Re2} [Milne & Davenport (1969)] ...……..(1.8)

Z = 279 × 10-6 e(1.8 M)/Re1.64 [Davenport (1972)] ..……..(1.9)

and to Rh by
Z = 5.6 e(0.8M)/(Rh + 40)2 [Esteva & Villaverde (1974)] ..……..(1.10)
 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI)
The intensity scale is based mainly
on the effects of earthquake rather
than its magnitude.

It consists of a series of certain key

responses such as people awakening,
movement of furniture, damage to
chimneys and finally total
destruction.

Among numerous intensity scales,

the one currently used most is
Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity
Scale (Wood-Neumann, 1931).
 Relation between Intensity, Magnitude and PGA
It is particular levels of intensity of shaking that buildings and structures are designed to resist,
and not so much the magnitude.

The PGA is one way of quantifying the severity of the ground shaking. Approximate empirical
correlations are available between the MM intensities and the PGA that may be experienced.
Table 1.4: PGAs during shaking of different Intensities [Bolt (1993)]
MMI V VI VII VIII IX X
Shaking Moderate Strong Very Strong Severe Violent Extreme

PGA 0.03~0.04 0.06~0.07 0.10~0.15 0.25~0.30 0.50~0.55  0.60

(g)

Based on data from past earthquakes, scientists Gutenberg and Richter (1956) provided an
approximate correlation between Local Magnitude ML of an earthquake with the intensity I0
sustained in epicentral area as

ML = 2 I0 /3 + 1 …………………..…...……..(1.11)

There are several different relations proposed by other scientists.

 Energy Release Equivalents (Es)
Both the earthquake magnitude and seismic moment are related to the amount of energy that is radiated
by an earthquake. Richter and Gutenberg developed this relationship between magnitude and energy.
log(ES) = 1.8 + 1.5M ...……..(1.12)
giving the energy ES in kilo-Joules from the magnitude M.

Table 1.5 lists the approximate energy equivalents in terms of TNT explosive force, although the
earthquake energy is released underground rather than overground. Most energy from an earthquake
dissipates into the crust and other subsurface structures. In contrast, a small atomic bomb blast will not,
it will simply cause light shaking of indoor items, since its energy is released above ground.

Table 1.5: TNT Equivalent of Earthquakes of different

Magnitudes
Magnitude TNT Equivalent Example
0.2 30 gm Large hand grenade
3.0 480 kg Oklahoma City bombing, 1995
3.9 9.5 Tons Explosion at Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 1986
6.0 15 kTons Atomic Bomb dropped on Hiroshima, 1945
Tsar Bomba - Largest thermonuclear weapon ever
8.4 50 MTons
tested, 1961
 History of Earthquakes in Bangladesh
Over the last 150 years, seven major earthquakes (with M > 7.0) have affected the zone that is
now within geographical borders of Bangladesh; some also had epicenters within Bangladesh.
The earthquakes are described in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: List of major Earthquakes affecting Bangladesh
Epicentral
Name of Magnitude distance
Date Epicenter
Earthquake (Richter) from Dhaka
(km)
10th Jan, Cachar Cachar
7.5 250
1869 Earthquake (East of Sylhet)
14th July, Bengal
Manikganj 7.0 170
1885 Earthquake*
Assam
12th June, Great Indian
(North of 8.7 230
1897 Earthquake
Mymensingh)
8th July, Srimongal Fig. 1.9: Major Fault-lines around
Srimongal 7.6 150
1918 Earthquake*
Dhubri Bangladesh
2nd July, Dhubri
(East of 7.1 250
1930 Earthquake
Rangpur)
Moving further back, menton
15th Jan, Bihar-Nepal India-Nepal
8.3 510 should be made of the 1762
1934 Earthquake border
15th Aug, Assam Arakan earthquake (Mw = 8.8)
Assam 8.5 780
1950 Earthquake
 Fig. 1.9 shows major fault lines responsible for the major earthquakes around Bangladesh,
while Fig. 1.10 shows the recently discovered fault-line around Sylhet-Comilla-Chittagong
which is apprehended to cause catastrophic earthquake in the future, possibly causing major
damage all over Bangladesh.

Fig. 1.10: New mega-thrust fault-line

The millions of tons of sediment that pile up in the delta region of rivers Ganges and
Brahmaputra (a large portion of Bangladesh) could be hiding the biggest natural disaster
the region has ever seen.

According to Steckler et al. [Locked and loading megathrust linked to active subduction
beneath the Indo-Burman Ranges, Nature Geoscience, Vol. 9, August 2016, pp. 615~619],
buried under miles of sediment lies a locked and loaded megathrust fault that could unleash
an earthquake up to 9.0 magnitude.
 Practice Problems on Nature of Earthquake
1. (i) Use the standard surface-wave formula to calculate the magnitude of an earthquake if it originates at a focal depth of 500 km, the
maximum amplitude of ground vibration recorded at an epicentral distance of 5 km is 10 cm and frequency of surface-wave is 0.05 Hz.
(ii) For this earthquake, calculate ground vibration amplitude at epicentral distance of 50 km.
Solution
(i) Using the standard surface-wave formula, with
A = 10 cm = 105 m, T = 1/f = 1/0.05 = 20 sec, D = d/h = 5/500 = 0.01 rad = 0.573
MS = log10(A/T)+ 1.66 log10(D)+ 3.30 = log10(105/20)+ 1.66 log10(0.573) + 3.30 = 6.60
(ii) Using MS = log10 (A/T) + 1.66 log10 (D) + 3.30
Þ 6.60 = log10 (A/20) + 1.66 log10 (50/500 × 180/) + 3.30  A = 0.219 cm
2. Fig. 1 shows an earthquake ground vibration data recorded at an epicentral distance of 10 km. If focal depth of the earthquake is 200
km and frequency of surface-wave is 0.05 Hz, calculate
(i) Local Magnitude of the earthquake (M L), (ii) Intensity (I0) sustained in epicentral area,
(iii) Peak Ground Acceleration [Esteva and 2Villaverde (1974)] ,
(iv) Energy released in the earthquake, (v) Seismic moment (M 0).

Fig. 1

3. An earthquake of Moment Magnitude 9.0 originates from a fault at Epicenter E (Shaheed Romizuddin Cantt. College, shown in Fig.
2) and propagates over a rupture area of width 100 km and depth 700 km through underlying rock having shear modulus 100 GPa.
Calculate the
(i) Average displacement of the fault plane, (ii) Energy released during the earthquake,
(iii) PGA at Farmgate area (F), 10 km from E [using Milne and Davenport (1969)].
4. The peak ground accelerations of an earthquake are recorded to be 1.5 m/sec 2 and 2.0 m/sec2 at two recording stations 10 km apart.
Use Davenport (1972) equation to calculate magnitude of the earthquake as well as epicentral distances of the two stations.