Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Greater Noida

Theory of Automata and Formal Languages

ACSE0404

Unit:1

Finite Automata
Sana Anjum
Assistant Professor
B. Tech
(Computer Science & Engineering) Computer Science and
4th Semester Engineering

Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I

1
05/19/2024
 Faculty Introduction

Sana Anjum is an Assistant Professor at Computer

Science and Engineering Department, Noida Institute of

Engineering and Technology, Gr Noida. She has done

MTech from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Technical University,

Lucknow

Prior to joining NIET Gr Noida , she was Assistant

Professor in Lloyd Institute of Engineering and

Technology Gr Noida. Her area of research includes

distributed system , Database ,Computer Networks and

Internet of Things. She has published research paper in

reputed journal and conference proceedings.

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Unit I
 Evaluation Scheme

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 Syllabus

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 Branch wise Applications

Computer Science
• Automaton is nothing but a machine which accepts the strings of a
language L over an input alphabet Σ. There are four different types
of Automata that are mostly used in the theory of computation
(TOC).
• Finite-state machine (FSM).
• Pushdown automata (PDA).
• Linear-bounded automata (LBA).
• Turing machine (TM).

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 Course Objectives

The primary objective of this course is to introduce students to the

foundations of computability theory. The other objectives include:
 Introduce concepts in automata theory and theory of computation

 Identify different formal language classes and their relationships

 Design grammars and recognizers for different formal languages

 Prove or disprove theorems in automata theory using its properties

 Determine the decidability and intractability of computational

problems

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 Course Outcomes

Bloom’s
CO At the end of course , the student will be able to
(KL)
CO1 Design and Simplify automata for formal languages and K6
transform non-deterministic finite automata to deterministic
finite automata.
CO2 Identify the equivalence between the regular expression and K3
finite automata and apply closure properties of formal
languages to construct finite automata for complex problems.
CO3 Define grammar for context free languages and use pumping K3
lemma to disprove a formal language being context- free.
CO4 Design pushdown automata (PDA) for context free languages K6
and Transform the PDA to context free grammar and vice-versa.
CO5 Construct Turing Machine for recursive and recursive K6
enumerable languages. Identify the decidable and undecidable
problems.

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 Program Outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge

and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

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 Program Outcomes (POs)

Contd..

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,

resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and
the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the
professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

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 Program Outcomes (POs)

Contd..

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a

member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these
to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and
in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

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 CO-PO correlation matrix

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO1 PO11 PO1
0 2

CO1
2 2 3 3 2 2 - - 2 1 - 3
CO2
1 3 2 3 2 2 - 1 1 1 2 2
CO3
2 2 3 2 2 2 - 2 2 1 2 3
CO4
2 2 2 3 2 2 - 2 2 1 1 3
CO5
3 2 2 2 2 2 - 2 1 1 1 2
Average
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2 2 - 1.4 1.6 1 1.2 2.6

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 CO-PO correlation matrix

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO1 PO11 PO1
0 2
CO1 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - 2 1 - 3

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 Program Specific Outcomes

On successful completion of graduation degree the Computer Science &

Engineering graduates will be able to:
identify, analyze real world problems and design their ethical solutions
using artificial intelligence, robotics, virtual/augmented reality, data
PSO1: analytics, block chain technology, and cloud computing.

Design and develop the hardware sensor devices and related interfacing
PSO2: software systems for solving complex engineering problems.

understand inter-disciplinary computing techniques and to apply them in the

PSO3: design of advanced computing.

Conduct investigation of complex problem with the help of technical,

PSO4: managerial, leadership qualities, and modern engineering tools provided by
industry sponsored laboratories.

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 CO-PSO correlation matrix

PSO
CO
PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4
CO1 2 2 2 2
CO2 2 2 1 1
CO3 2 2 1 1
CO4 2 2 1 1
CO5 2 2 2 2
Average 2 2 1.4 1.4

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 Program Educational Objectives

PEO1: To have an excellent scientific and engineering breadth so as to

comprehend, analyze, design and solve real-life problems using state-of-the-
art technologies.

PEO2: To lead a successful career in industries, to pursue higher studies or to

support entrepreneurial endeavors so that engineering graduates can face the
global challenges.

PEO3:To effectively bridge the gap between industry and academia through
effective communication skill, professional attitude, ethical values and a desire
to learn.

PEO4: To provide highly competitive environment and solidarity to students

for successful professional career as engineer, scientist, entrepreneur and
bureaucrats for the betterment of society.
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 CO-PEO correlation matrix

PEO
CO
PEO1 PEO2 PEO3 PEO4
CO1 2 2 1 2
CO2 2 2 1 1
CO3 2 2 2 2
CO4 2 2 1 1
CO5 2 2 1 2
Average 2 2 1.2 2

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 Result Analysis

Subject Result:

Section A: 95.65%
Section B: 97.14%
Section C: 84.51%
Section D: 94.29%

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Unit I
 End Semester Question Paper Template

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Unit I
 End Semester Question Paper Template

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Unit I
 End Semester Question Paper Template

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Unit I
 Prerequisite for the Course

• Basics operations of mathematics.

• Discrete mathematics.
• Predicate logic.

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 Recap

• Finite automata is an abstract computing device. It is

a mathematical model of a system with discrete
inputs, outputs, states and a set of transitions from
state to state that occurs on input symbols from the
alphabet Σ.

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 Brief subject introduction with Video Lecture

• (73) TAFL1:Theory of Automata and Formal La

nguage| Course Overview of automata, TOC L
ectures in Hindi - YouTube
• (73) TAFL2:Theory of Automata and Formal La
nguage| Theory of Computation Tutorial Sylla
bus - YouTube

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 Unit Contents

Topics Duration (in Hours)

Introduction to theory of computation 1
Finite Automata 7
Minimization of DFA 1
Finite Automata with Output 2

Topics Duration (in Hours)

Assignment, Tutorials and Quiz 1

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 Unit Objectives

Objective of the unit is to make students able to:

• Construct DFA and NFA.
• Apply the uses of FA in computational problems.
• Minimize the Finite automata.
• Simulate NFA and DFA.

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 Topic Objective

Objective of the Topic

The objective of the topic is to make the student able to:
• Understand the requirement of finite automata.
• Implement Finite automata
• Realize the expressive power of Ɛ- NFA, NFA and DFA
• Minimize the FA
• Implement Mealy and Moore machine.
• Convert Mealy machine to Moore machine and vice-versa.

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 Objective mapping with CO

Topic mapping with Course Outcome

Topic CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

Finite Automata 3 - - - -

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 Introduction to Automata

• Automaton is the system that performs some function without

human intervention.
• The plural of Automaton is Automata.

• Automata theory is the study of abstract computational machines

and the computational problems that can be solved using these
machines
• Abstract machine are (simplified) mathematical models of real
computations

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 Introduction to Automata

Temporary Memory

Automaton

Input CPU Output

Program Memory

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 Introduction to Automata

Compute f(x)=x2+3? Temporary Memory

y= 5*5
f(x)=25+3

Output
Input
X=5
CPU f(x)=28

Program Memory
y=x*x
f(x)=y+3
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 Introduction to Automata

Why do we need abstract models?

W ITCH
S

BATTERY

input: switch
output: light bulb
actions: flip switch
states: on, off

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Unit I
 Introduction to Automata

A simple “computer”
ITCH
SW

BATTERY start off on

input: switch
output: light bulb bulb is on if and only if
there was an odd number of
actions: f for “flip switch” flips
states: on, off

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 Introduction to Automata

Another “computer” 1
1
start off off
1

2 2
BATTERY 2 2
1
2
off on
1

inputs: switches 1 and 2

actions: 1 for “flip switch 1” bulb is on if and only if
actions: 2 for “flip switch 2” both switches were flipped
an odd number of times
states: on, off

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 Introduction to Automata

A Design Problem
1 4

?
5
BATTERY

Can you design a circuit where the light is on if and only if all the
switches were flipped exactly the same number of times?
Such devices are difficult to reason about, because they can be
designed in an infinite number of ways

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 Introduction to Automata

A Design Problem
• By representing them as abstract
computational devices, or automata, we will
learn how to answer such questions

– What can a given type of device compute, and

what are its limitations?
– Is one type of device more powerful than
another?

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 Introduction to Automata

Basic Concept
– Every automaton consists of some
essential features as in real Input Tape
computers.
It has a mechanism for reading input.
i.e. Input Tape
 The automaton can produce
Finite
output of some form.
Control
 If the output is Binary (accept or
reject) - Accepter.
 Output sequence in response to an
input sequence- Transducer
The automaton may have a Output Temp
Storage
temporary storage
The most important feature of the
automaton is its control unit.
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 Different Types of Automata

finite automata Devices with a finite amount of memory.

Used to recognizer or string matching.

push-down Devices with infinite memory that can be

automata accessed in a restricted way.
Used to model parsers, etc.

Turing Machines Devices with infinite memory.

Used to model any computer.

Linear Bounded Infinite memory, but bounded running time.

Automata Used to model any computer program that
(time-bounded runs in a “reasonable” amount of time.
Turing Machines)
 Common terms used in Automata

Alphabet
An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set of symbols.
It is represented by ∑.
Ex:
∑={0,1} is binary alphabet.
∑={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} is decimal alphabet.
∑={a,b,c,…..,z} is lower-case alphabet.

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 Common terms used in Automata

Strings/Words
A string or word is a finite sequence of symbols over ∑.
Ex:
w = 10110 is a string over ∑={0,1}.

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 Common terms used in Automata

Length of a string
or
Power of ∑
∑k is the set of strings of length k (|w|=k).
Ex:
If ∑={a,b} then
∑0= {Ɛ} , called Epsilon.
∑1 = {a,b}
∑2 = {aa,ab,ba,bb}

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 Common terms used in Automata

Reverse of a string
Reverse of a string, w is represented as wR.
Ex:
If w=xyz then wR =zyx.

Substrings of a string
If w=xyz then its substrings are:
Ɛ, x, y, z, xy, yz, zx, xyz

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 Common terms used in Automata

Prefix of a string
If w=xyz then its prefixes are:
Ɛ, x, xy, xyz

Suffix of a string
If w=xyz then its suffixes are:
Ɛ, z, yz, xyz

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 Common terms used in Automata

Languages
A set of strings, over ∑, is called a language.
Ex:
L1=[w={0,1}*| w has equal number of 0’s and 1’s]
L1={01,10,0011,0101,0110,1010,1001,1100,……}
L2=[w={0,1}*| |w|3]
L2={Ɛ,0,1,00,01,10,11,000,001,010,011,100,101,1
10,111}

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 Common terms used in Automata

Kleene closure
Kleene closure represented as ∑*, is set of strings of all
possible length.

∑*=∑0 ∑1 ∑2 ∑3……….

Ex:
If ∑ ={a,b} then
∑*={Ɛ, a,b,aa,ab,ba,bb,aaa,aab,………..}

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 Common terms used in Automata

Positive closure
Positive closure represented as ∑+, is set of strings of all
possible length.
∑+=∑1 ∑2 ∑3……….

∑*= ∑0 ∑+
Ex:
If ∑ ={a,b} then
∑+={a,b,aa,ab,ba,bb,aaa,aab,………..}

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 Grammar

A grammar G can be formally written as a 4-tuple (N, T, S, P)

where −

• N or VN is a set of variables or non-terminal symbols.

• T or ∑ is a set of Terminal symbols.

• S is a special variable called the Start symbol, S ∈ N

• P is Production rules for Terminals and Non-terminals. A

production rule has the form α → β, where α and β are strings
on VN ∪ ∑ and least one symbol of α belongs to VN.
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 Example

Grammar G1 − ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, S, {S → AB, A → a, B → b})

Here,
• S, A, and B are Non-terminal symbols;
• a and b are Terminal symbols
• S is the Start symbol, S ∈ N
• Productions, P : S → AB, A → a, B → b
Grammar G2 −(({S, A}, {a, b}, S,{S → aAb, aA → aaAb, A → ε } )
Here,
• S and A are Non-terminal symbols.
• a and b are Terminal symbols.
• ε is an empty string.
• S is the Start symbol, S ∈ N
• Production P : S → aAb, aA → aaAb, A → ε
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 Derivations from a Grammar

Strings may be derived from other strings using the productions

in a grammar.
If a grammar G has a production α → β, we can say that x α
y derives x β y in G.
This derivation is written as

G
xαy⇒xβy

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 Example

Let us consider the grammar −

G2 = ({S, A}, {a, b}, S, {S → aAb, aA → aaAb, A → ε } )

Some of the strings that can be derived are −

• S ⇒ aAb using production S → aAb
• ⇒ aaAbb using production aA → aaAb
• ⇒ aaaAbbb using production aA → aaAb
• ⇒ aaabbb using production A → ε

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 Language Generated by a Grammar

The set of all strings that can be derived from a grammar is said to be
the language generated from that grammar.
A language generated by a grammar G is a subset formally defined by
L(G)={W|W ∈ ∑*, S ⇒G W}

• If L(G1) = L(G2), the Grammar G1 is equivalent to the Grammar G2.

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 Example

1. If there is a grammar
G: N = {S, A, B} T = {a, b} P = {S → AB, A → a, B → b}
• Here S produces AB, and we can replace A by a, and B by b.
Here, the only accepted string is ab, i.e.,
• L(G) = {ab}

2. Suppose we have the following grammar −

G: N = {S, A, B} T = {a, b} P = {S → AB, A → aA|a, B → bB|b}
• The language generated by this grammar −
• L(G) = {ab, a2b, ab2, a2b2, ………}
= {am bn | m ≥ 1 and n ≥ 1}

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 Chomsky Classification of Grammars

According to Noam Chomsky, there are four types of grammars − Type 0, Type
1, Type 2, and Type 3. The following table shows how they differ from each
other

Grammar Type Grammar Accepted Language Accepted Automaton

Type 0 Unrestricted Recursively Turing Machine

grammar enumerable
language
Type 1 Context-sensitive Context-sensitive Linear-bounded
grammar language automaton

Type 2 Context-free Context-free Pushdown

grammar language automaton
Type 3 Regular grammar Regular language Finite state
automaton

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 Chomsky Classification of Grammars

It shows the scope of each type of grammar −

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 Type - 3 Grammar

• Type-3 grammars generate regular languages.

• Type-3 grammars must have a single non-terminal on the left-hand side .
• a right-hand side consisting of a single terminal or single terminal followed
by a single non-terminal.
• The productions must be in the form
X → a or X → aY ---------- (right linear)
X → a or X → Ya -----------(left linear)
where X, Y ∈ N (Non terminal)
a ∈ T (Terminal)
Note: The rule S → ε is allowed if S does not appear on the right side of any
rule.

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 Type - 3 Grammar Example

Example1 :
X→ε
• X → a | aY
• Y→b
Example 2:
The language 0(10)* is generated by
the right linear grammar: S → 0A
A → 10 A / ε
The left linear grammar : S → S10 / 0

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 Type - 2 Grammar

• Type-2 grammars generate context-free languages.

• The productions must be in the form A → γ
where A ∈ N (Non terminal)
γ ∈ (T ∪ N)* (String of terminals and non-terminals).

• These languages generated by these grammars are be recognized by

a non-deterministic pushdown automaton.
Example:
S→Xa
X→a
X → aX
X → abc
X→ε
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 Type - 1 Grammar

• Type-1 grammars generate context-sensitive languages.

• The productions must be in the form
αAβ→αγβ
where A ∈ N (Non-terminal)
α, β, γ ∈ (T ∪ N)* (Strings of terminals and non-terminals)

• The strings α and β may be empty, but γ must be non-empty.

• The rule S → ε is allowed if S does not appear on the right side of
any rule. The languages generated by these grammars are
recognized by a linear bounded automaton.
• Right hand side string be at least as long as or longer than Left hand
side string.

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 Type - 1 Grammar Example

• AB → AbBc
• A → bcA
• B→b

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 Type - 0 Grammar

• Type-0 grammars generate recursively enumerable languages. The

productions have no restrictions.
• They are any phase structure grammar including all formal
grammars.
• They generate the languages that are recognized by a Turing
machine.
• The productions can be in the form of α → β
• where α is a string of terminals and nonterminals with at least one
non-terminal and α cannot be null. β is a string of terminals and
non-terminals.

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 Type - 0 Grammar Example

• S → ACaB
• Bc → acB
• CB → DB
• aD → Db

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 Finite Automata

• Finite Automata: It is a mathematical model that works for several

computer algorithms. It is called finite because it works on Finite set
of Input symbols with Finite number of States and gives output in
finite times.

a b Magnetic
b tape
a b a a

Reading Head

Output
Finite Control

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 Applications of Automata

Applications of Finite Automata

• String Matching
• Lexical Analysis
• Design and Analysis of Digital Circuits

 Finite automata is another method for defining languages.

 It’s a Graphical Method.

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 Finite Automata

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 Finite Automata

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 Why is it named as Finite Automata?

Automata : Plural of Automaton (i.e. automatic , self controlled

machine)

Finite : Finite number of states / letters / transitions.

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 Finite Automata

Finite Automata

Deterministic Finite Non-deterministic

Automata (DFA) Finite Automata (NFA)

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 DFA (Deterministic Finite Automata)

• For a DFA the machine moves to a particular unique state from a

given state and given input that is why it is called Deterministic. As
the number of states in DFA are Finite it is called Deterministic
Finite Automata.
• Next State is known ( Has only one next state for an input)

a q1

q0
b
q2

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 Deterministic Finite Automata

• A deterministic finite automaton (DFA) is a 5-tuple (Q, S, d, q0, F)

where
– Q is a finite set of states
– S is finite set of alphabet
– d: Q × S → Q is a transition function
– q0 Î Q is the initial state
– F Í Q is a set of accepting states (or final states).
• In diagrams, the accepting states will be denoted by double loops

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 DFA

Representation of 
o Transition Diagram
o Transition Table
o Transition Function

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 DFA

Transition Diagram

0 0

1 0

q0 q1 q2
1 1
M={ {q0, q1, q2}, {0,1}, , q0, q2}

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 DFA

Transition Table

Present Next State

State 0 1

 q0 q0 q1
q1 q0 q2
*q2 q0 q0

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 71

 DFA

Transition Function

(q0, 0)= q0
(q0, 1)= q1
(q1, 0)= q2
(q1, 1)= q0
(q2, 0)= q1
(q2, 1)= q2

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 72

 Example

0 1 0,1

q0 1 q1 0 q2

alphabet S = {0, 1} transition function d:

start state Q = {q0, q1, q2} inputs
initial state q0 0 1
accepting states F = {q0, q1} q0 q0 q1

states
q1 q2 q1
q2 q2 q2

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) 73

Unit I
 Language of a DFA

The language of a DFA M=(Q, S, d, q0, F) is the set of all

strings over S accepted by M i.e. L(M) and is denoted

L(M) = {w | w ∈ S* , d(q0 , w) = qf where qf ∈ F}

M: off on

• Language of M is {f, fff, fffff, …} = {f n: n is odd}

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) 74

Unit I
 Example

0 0
1 The set of all string over
q0 q1
1 {0,1} containing even no.
of 1’s
0 1
The set of all string over
1 {0,1} ending with 1’s
q0 q1
0

0 1 0,1
The set of all string over
q0 1 q1 0 q2 {0,1} does not contain 10
as substring

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 75

 Variation of Finite Automata

• Deterministic Finite Automat

– δ: Q × Σ → Q
• Non-Deterministic Finite Automata
– δ: Q x Σ → 2Q
• Non-Deterministic Finite Automata with Epsilon
• δ: Q x {Σ ∪ {ε}} → 2Q
• Finite Automata with output
(Q, Σ, Δ, δ, λ, q0) where Q , Σ, δ, and q0 are similar to DFA and Δ is
the set of output symbol and λ is out put function
• Moore Machine : the output is depend on present state λ : Q → Δ
• Mealy Machine : the output is depend on present state and current
input applied on the state λ : Q x Σ → Δ

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 76

 NFA

In NFA, the machine can move from a present state to a

combination of states for an input symbol that is why it is called
non-deterministic. As the number of states are finite, it is called
Non-deterministic Finite Automata.

a q1

q0
a
q2

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 77

 Formal definition of an NFA

• An NFA is represented as a 5 tuples,

M={Q, ∑, , q0, F}
Q= Non empty finite set of states
∑= Input alphabet
= Transition Function, : Q x ∑  2Q
q0= Initial State
F= Set of final states (F Q)

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 78

 Difference between DFA and NFA

The transition from a state is to a The transition from a state can be to

single particular next state for each a combination of states for each
input symbol. Hence it is input symbol. Hence it is called non-
called deterministic. deterministic.

Ɛ-transition is not allowed in DFA. NFA permits Ɛ-transition.

DFA takes more space. NFA takes less space.

DFA is as powerful as NFA. NFA is as powerful as DFA.

A string is accepted by a DFA, if it A string is accepted by a NDFA, if at

transits to a final state. least one of all possible transitions
ends in a final state.

Every DFA is an NFA. Every NFA is not a DFA.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 79

 Examples of DFA

• Construct a DFA that accepts all strings over ∑={0,1} ending

with 1.
• Construct a DFA for L={w=(0,1)*| |w|=3n , n=0,1,2,...}
• Construct a DFA for L= { all binary strings containing substring
001 }

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 80

 Examples of DFA

• Construct a DFA that accepts all strings over ∑={0,1} ending

with 1.

1
0 1

q0 q1
0

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 81

 Examples of DFA

• Construct a DFA for L={w=(0,1)*| |w|=3n , n=0,1,2,...}

0, 1 0, 1

q0 q1 q2

0, 1

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 82

 Examples of DFA

• Construct a DFA for L= { all binary strings containing substring

001 }
0, 1
1 0

0 0 1
q0 q1 q2 q3

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 83

 Examples of DFA

• Construct a DFA for L= { all binary strings not containing

substring 001 }
0, 1
1 0

0 0 1
q0 q1 q2 q3

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 84

 Examples of NFA

• Construct a NFA for L= { all strings beginning with aab }

a, b

a a b
q0 q1 q2 q3

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 85

 Examples of NFA

• Construct a NFA over ∑={a,b,c,d} that recognises abd, aacd or

abdd.
b d
q1 q2 q3
a

a a c d
q0 q4 q5 q6 q7

a
b d d
q8 q9 q10 q11

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 86

 Conversion of NFA to DFA

• Convert following NFA to DFA

1 0,1
0
0 1

q0 q0 q1
q0 q1
q1 q1 {q0,q1}
1

0 0 0,1
0 1

q0 q0 q1
1 1
q0 q1 [q0,q1]
q1 q1 [q0,q1]

[q0,q1] [q0,q1] [q0,q1]

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 87

 Equivalence of NFA and DFA

Theorem: Every NFA has an equivalent DFA.

If a language L is accepted by an NFA then there exists an

equivalent DFA that accepts L.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 88

 Equivalence of NFA and DFA (Proof)

Let L is accepted by NFA N = (QN, ΣN, δN, q0N, FN).

Construct a DFA D= (QD, ΣD, δD, q0D, FD) as follows.
QN
QD is equal to the power set of QN, QD = 2
ΣD = ΣN =∑
q0D = {q0N}
FD is the set of states in QD that contain any element of FN.
δD is the transition function for D.
δD (q,a)= pq δN (q,a)for q ∈ QD and a ∈ Σ.
p is a single state from QN .
δD(q,a) is the union of all δN(p,a).
Now we will prove that for every x, L(D) = L(N)

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 89

 Equivalence of NFA and DFA (Proof)

Basis Step
Let x be the empty string ε.
δD(q0D, x) = δD(q0D, ε)
= q0D
= {q0N }
= δN(q0N, ε)
= δN(q0N, x)

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 90

 NFA with Ɛ- Transition

0 1

ε
q0 q1

We extend the class of an NFA by allowing ε transitions:

• The automaton may be allowed to change its state without reading
the input symbol.
• Such transitions are depicted by labeling the appropriate arcs with
ε.
• ‘ε’ does not belong to any alphabet (∑).

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 91

 Why Ɛ- NFA ?/

• ε -NFAs add a convenient feature.

• Through ε –NFAs we can implement some complex languages easily.
• They do not extend the power of an NFA.
• Both NFAs and ε-NFAs have same power.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 92

 Formal definition of an Ɛ- NFA

• An NFA is represented as a 5 tuples,

M={Q, ∑, , q0, F}
Q= Non empty finite set of states
∑= Input alphabet
= Transition Function, : Q X (∑Ɛ)  2Q
q0= Initial State
F= Set of final states (F Q)

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 93

 Example of ε -NFA

• Design an NFA for L={ apbqcr| p,q,r 0}.

a b c

ε ε
q0 q1 q2

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 94

 Example of ε -NFA

• Design an NFA for L={ an| n is even or divisible by 3}.

a
ε q1 q2

q0 a

ε
q3 a q4 a q5

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 95

 ε –Closure of a state

• The ε-closure of the state q, denoted as ε-Closure(q), is the set that

contains q, together with all states that can be reached starting at q
by following only ε-transitions.
a b c

ε ε
q0 q1 q2

• ε-Closure(q0) = {q0, q1, q2}

• ε-Closure(q1) = {q1, q2}
• ε-Closure(q2) = {q2}

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 96

 Conversion of ε –NFA to NFA

a b c (q0, a)= ε-Closure(ε-Closure(q0), a)

= ε-Closure({ q0,q1,q2},a)
ε ε = ε-Closure(q0)
q0 q1 q2 = {q0, q1, q2}

States ε-Closure a b c

q0 {q0, q1, q2} q0 {q0, q1, q2} {q1, q2} {q2}

q1 {q1, q2} q1  {q1, q2} {q2}

q2 {q2} q2   {q2}

a b c

a, b b, c
q0 q1 q2

a, b, c
05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 97
 Minimization of DFA

• Minimization of a DFA refers to the removal of those states of a DFA,

whose presence or absence in a DFA does not affect the language
accepted by the automata.

• The states that can be eliminated from automata are:

 Unreachable or inaccessible states.
 Dead states.
 Non-distinguishable or indistinguishable state or equivalent
states.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 98

 Minimization of DFA

• Minimize the following DFA:

0
0 Transition Table

0 1
B 1 D
0 A B C

B B D
A 0 1
0 C B C

1 D B E
C E *E B C
1

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 99

 Minimization of DFA

• Eqivalent State
Two states qi and qj are equivalent or indistinguishable (for the future), if,
when started in these states, every string causes the machine to either end up
in an accepting state for both or end up in a non-accepting state for both.
qi qm
a

qj qn
a

If qm and qn are distinguishable, then so are qi and qj

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 100

 Minimization of DFA

Suppose there is a DFA D < Q, Σ, q0, δ, F > which recognizes a language L. Then
the minimized DFA D < Q’, Σ, q0, δ’, F’ > can be constructed for language L as:
 Step 1: We will divide Q (set of states) into two sets. One set will contain all
final states and other set will contain non-final states. This partition is called
0.
 Step 2: Initialize k = 1
 Step 3: Find k by partitioning the different sets of k-1. In each set of k-1,
we will take all possible pair of states. If two states of a set are
distinguishable, we will split the sets into different sets in k.
 Step 4: Stop when k = k-1 (No change in partition)
 Step 5: All states of one set are merged into one. No. of states in minimized
DFA will be equal to no. of sets in k.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 101

 Minimization of DFA

Transition Table
0 1
Find Equivalence classes
A B C
0= {A,B,C,D} {E}
B B D 1= {A,B,C} {D} {E}
C B C 2= {A,C} {B} {D} {E}
D B E 3= {A,C} {B} {D} {E}
*E B C 2= 3 ,so stop here.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 102

 Minimization of DFA

Transition Table
{A,C} {B} {D} {E}

0 1 0
0
A B C

B B D B 1 D
0
C B C

D B E AC 0 1
0
*E B C
1
E

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 103

 Minimization of DFA

Using Table Filling Method (Myhill-Nerode Theorem)

Step 1: Draw a table for all pairs of states (P,Q) not necessarily
connected directly [All are unmarked initially].

Step 2: Consider every state pair (P,Q) in the DFA where P ∈ F and
Q ∉ F or vice versa and mark (X) them. [Here F is the set of final
states].

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 104

 Minimization of DFA

Using Table Filling Method (Myhill-Nerode Theorem)

Contd…

Step 3: Repeat this step until we cannot mark anymore states − If

there is an unmarked pair (P, Q ), such that {δ(P , a), δ (Q , a)} is
marked then mark (P,Q), where a ∈ ∑.

Step 4: Combine all the unmarked pair (P , Q ) and make them a

single state in the reduced DFA.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 105

 Minimization of DFA

Minimize the following DFA.

0, 1

1 1
B D F
1
0 0
1
0

A C 0 E
1
0

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 106

 Minimization of DFA

Step 1: Draw a Table for all pair of states (P,Q).

A B C D E F
A
B
C
D
E
F

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 107

 Minimization of DFA

Step 2: Mark every state pair (P,Q) in the DFA where P ∈ F and Q ∉ F .

A B C D E F
A
B
C X X
D X X
E X X
F X X X

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 108

 Minimization of DFA

Step 3: − If there is an unmarked pair (P, Q ), such that {δ(P , a), δ (Q , a)} is
marked then mark (P,Q).

A B C D E F
A
B
C X X
D X X
E X X
F X X X X X

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 109

 Minimization of DFA

•After step 3, we have got state combinations {a, b} {c, d} {c, e} {d, e} that
are unmarked.
•We can recombine {c, d} {c, e} {d, e} into {c, d, e}.
•Hence we got two combined states as − {a, b} and {c, d, e}.
•So the final minimized DFA will contain three states {f}, {a, b} and {c, d,
e}.
0 0 0, 1

1 1
[AB] [CDE] F

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 110

 Finite Automata with Output

• The Finite Automata Discussed so far have limited capability i.e.

accepting or rejecting a string.
• Finite Automata with output do not have final state.
•Finite Automata with output are of two types:
• Mealy Machine
• Moore Machine

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 111

 Finite Automata with Output

• Mealy Machine
• The out put is associated with transition. The output depends on present
state and present input.
: Q X ∑  

• Moore Machine
• The output is associated with present state. The output depends on
present state only.
: Q  

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 112

 Formal Definition of Mealy Machine

• Mealy machine is described by 6-tuples - (Q, Σ, Δ, δ, λ, q0)

where
Q = Finite non-empty set of states;
Σ = Set of input alphabets.
Δ = Set of output alphabets.
δ = Transitional function mapping Q X Σ → Q
λ = Output function mapping Q X Σ → Δ
q0 = Initial state

05/19/2024 Vineet
Sana Kumar
Anjum KCS-402
ACSE0404 (TOAFL)
(TOAFL) Unit I 113
Unit I
 Example of Mealy Machine

Design a Mealy machine that accepts all strings over ∑={a, b}

ending in aa or bb.
a/1
Present Next State
q2 State
a /0 a b

b/0
a/0

q0
q0 q2, 0 q1, 0
b/0
q1 q2, 0 q1, 1
q1
q2 q2, 1 q1,0
b/1

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 114

 Formal Definition of Moore Machine

• Moore machine is described by 6-tuples - (Q, Σ, Δ, δ, λ, q0)

where
Q = Finite non-empty set of states;
Σ = Set of input alphabets.
Δ = Set of output alphabets.
δ = Transitional function mapping Q X Σ → Q
λ = Output function mapping Q → Δ
q0 = Initial state

05/19/2024 Vineet
Sana Kumar
Anjum KCS-402
ACSE0404 (TOAFL)
(TOAFL) Unit I 115
Unit I
 Example of Moore Machine

Create a Moore machine that counts number of a mod3. ∑={a, b}.

b b b

a a
q0/0 q1/1 q2/2

Present Next State Output

a State
a b

q0 q1 Q0 0

q1 q2 q1 1

q2 q2 q1 2
05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 116
 Conversion from Mealy machine to Moore machine

Step 1: For each state q determine the number of outputs that are
associated with q in Next state column of transition table of the Mealy
machine.
Step 2: If the outputs corresponding to state q in the next state
columns are same, then retain state q as it is.
Else, break q into different states with the number of new states being
equal to the number of different outputs of q.
Step 3: Rearrange the states and outputs in the format of Moore
machine.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 117

 Conversion from Mealy machine to Moore machine

Step 4: If the output in the constructed state table corresponding to

the initial state is 1, then this specifies the acceptance of the null string
Ɛ by Mealy machine. Hence, to make both the Mealy and Moore
machines equivalent, we either need to ignore the corresponding to
null string or we need to insert a new initial state at beginning whose
output is 0; the other row elements in this case would remain the
same.

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 118

 Conversion from Mealy machine to Moore machine

Convert given Mealy machine to Moore machine.

Mealy Machine Moore Machine

Present Next State Present Next State Output
State State
a b a b

q0 q3, 0 q1, 1

q0 q3 q11 1
q1 q0, 1 q3, 0
q10 q0 q3 0
q2 q2, 1 q2, 0
q11 q0 q3 1
q3 q1, 0 q0, 1
q20 q21 q20 0
Split q1 into q10 and q11 q21 q21 q20 1
and
Split q2 into q20 and q21 q3 q10 q0 0

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 119

 Conversion from Moore machine to Mealy machine

For understanding the conversion of Moore machine to Mealy machine, let

us take an example:
Suppose the Moore machine transition table is:
Present Next State Output
State
a b

p s q 0

q q r 1

r r s 0

s s p 0

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 120

 Conversion from Moore machine to Mealy machine

First of all take the Mealy machine transition table format, and copy all
the Moore machine transition table states into Mealy machine transition
table.
Present Next State
State
a b

p s q

q q r

r r s

s s p

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 121

 Conversion from Moore m/c to Mealy m/c

Now in the Moore machine, the output of state p is 0. So make the output of p
in the Mealy machine next state column of the above table is 0. Same process
is repeated for q, r and s.
Moore Machine Mealy Machine
Present Next State
Present Next Output State
State State a b
a b

p s, 0 q, 1

p s q 0 q q, 1 r, 0
q q r 1 r r, 0 s, 0
r r s 0 s s, 0 p, 0
s s p 0
05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 122
 Difference Between Mealy And Moore Machine

BASIS OF COMPARISON MEALY MACHINE MOORE MACHINE

Mealy machine changes its Output of Moore machine only
Description output based on its current depends on its current state
input and present state. and not on the current input.
Output Output is placed on transition. Output is placed on transition.

Output Function : Q X ∑   : Q  
Counter A counter is not a Mealy A counter is a Moore machine.
machine.
Design Not necessarily easy to design. Easy to design.
It produce n length output It produce n+1 length output
Length of Out put String string corresponding to n length string corresponding to n length
input String input String

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 123

 Video Links

• NPTEL Video Links

https://youtu.be/al4AK6ruRek
https://youtu.be/539Bk9fFOyo
https://youtu.be/r20I_inUNv8

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 124

 Daily Quiz

1. Given: ∑= {a, b}L= {xϵ∑*|x is a string combination}∑4 represents which

among the following? *
A. {aa, ab, ba, bb}
B. {aaaa, abab, ε, abaa, aabb}
C. {aaa, aab, aba, bbb}
D. All of the mentioned

2. Converting each of the final states of F to non-final states and old non-final
states of F to final states, FA thus obtained will reject every string belonging
to L and will accept every string, defined over Σ, not belonging to L. is called
E. Transition Graph of L
F. Regular expression of L
G. Complement of L
H. Finite Automata of L

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 125

 Daily Quiz

3. Myhill Nerode theorem is consisting of the followings,

A. L partitions Σ into distinct classes.
B. If L is regular then, L generates finite number of classes.
C. If L generates finite number of classes, then L is regular.
D. All of above

4. The part of an FA, where the input string is placed before it is run, is
called ______
E. State
F. Transition
G. Input Tape
D. Output Tape

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 126

 Daily Quiz

5. Which of the following is an application of Finite Automaton?

A. Compiler Design
B. Grammar Parsers
C. Text Search
D. All of the mentioned

6. Which of the following is a not a part of 5-tuple finite automata?

E. Input alphabet
F. Transition function
G. Initial State
H. Output Alphabet

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 127

 Daily Quiz

7. John is asked to make an automaton which accepts a given string for all the
occurrence of ‘1001’ in it. How many number of transitions would John use such
that, the string processing application works?
A. 9
B. 11
C. 12
D. 15

8. The total number of states to build the given language using DFA:
L= {w | w has exactly 2 a’s and at least 2 b’s}
E. 10
F. 11
G. 12
H. 13

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 128

 Daily Quiz

9. A binary string is divisible by 4 if and only if it ends with:

a) 100
b) 1000
c) 1100
d) 0011

10. Let N (Q, ∑, δ, q0, A) be the NFA recognizing a language L. Then for
a DFA (Q’, ∑, δ’, q0’, A’), which among the following is true?
a) Q’ = P(Q)
b) Δ’ = δ’ (R, a) = {q ϵ Q | q ϵ δ (r, a), for some r ϵ R}
c) Q’={q0}
d) All of the mentioned

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 129

 Daily Quiz

1. One language can be expressed by more than one FA”. This

statement is ______
a) True
b) False
c) Some times true & sometimes false
d) None of these

2. Can a DFA simulate NFA?

e) NO
f) YES
g) SOMETIMES
h) Depends on NFA

05/19/2024 Sana Anjum ACSE0404 (TOAFL) Unit I 130

 Daily Quiz

3. Which of the following statements is wrong ?

A. The language accepted by finite automata are the languages

denoted by regular expressions
B. For every DFA there is a regular expression denoting its language
C. For a regular expression r, there does not exist NFA with L(r) any
transit that accept
D. None of these

4. An automation is a __________ device and a grammar is a

__________ device.
A. generative, cognitive
B. generative, acceptor
C. acceptor, cognitive
D. cognitive, generative
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 Daily Quiz

5. Finite state machines _________ recognize palindromes

A. can
B. can't
C. may
D. may not

6. FSM shown in the figure

A. all strings
B. no string
C. ε- alone
D. none of these

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 Daily Quiz

7. A FSM can be used to add how many given integers?

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) Any number of integers

8. The basic limitation of a FSM is that

e) It cannot remember arbitrary large amount of information
f) It sometimes recognizes grammar that are not regular
g) It sometimes fails to recognize grammars that are regular
h) All of the above

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 Daily Quiz

9. Finite automata are used for pattern matching in text

editors for
a) Compiler lexical analysis
b) Programming in localized application
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above

10. The language accepted by finite automata is

e) Context free
f) Regular
g) Non regular
h) None of these

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 MCQs

1. A binary string is divisible by 4 if and only if it ends with:

A. 100
B. 1000
C. 1100
D. 0011

2. Recognizing capabilities of NFSM and DFSM

E. May be different
F. May be same
G. Must be different
H. None of the above

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 MCQs

3. Which minimum state FA is equivalent to following FA

ANS : (A)

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 MCQs

4. The minimum number of states required to recognize an octal

number divisible by 3 are/is
A. 1
B. 3
C. 5
D. 7

5. Which of the following is/ are regular

E. a string of a' s in perfect square
F. a string of palindrom over {a,b}
G. a string of odd no of a's over {a,b}
H. a string of equal no of a's and b's over {a,b}

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 MCQs

6. If two finite state machines are equivalent, they should have the
same number of
A. states
B. edges
C. states and edges
D. none of these

7. The word 'formal' in formal languages means

A. the symbols used have well-defined meaning
B. they are unnecessary, in reality
C. only form of the string of symbols is significant
D. Both (a) and (b)

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 MCQs

8. The main difference between a DFSA and an NDFSA is

A. in DFSA, ε transition may be present
B. in NDFSA, ε transitions may be present
C. in DFSA, from any given state, there can't be any alphabet leading to two
diferent states
D. in NDFSA, from any given state, there can't be any alphabet leading to two
different states

9. Palindromes can't be recognized by any FSM because

A. FSM can't remember arbitrarily large of information
B. FSM can't deterministically fix the mid-point
C. even if mid-point is known, FSM be can't be found whether, second half of
the string matches the first half
D. all of these

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 Glossary

1) Construct the DFA for the set of all string over {a,b} contain
exactly 3a’s .
2) Construct the DFA that accepts all string over{a,b} contains
at most 3 a’s
3) Construct the DFA for the even number of a’s over {a,b}.
4) Construct the DFA for the set of all string contain three
consecutive a’s over {a,b}.
5) Construct the DFA that accepts all string over{a,b} containing
aba as substring.

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 Weekly Assignment

1. Design a deterministic finite automaton(DFA) for the following

language over the set of input alphabet {0,1}

[CO1]
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s such that no of 0’s are even and 1’s are odd.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s with at least two consecutive 0’s.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s beginning with 1 and not having two
consecutive zeroes.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’ s not containing 101 as substring.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s whose last two symbols are same.

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 Weekly Assignment

2. Design a Non-deterministic finite automaton(NFA) for the following

language over the set of input alphabet {0,1}
[CO1]
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s such that 3rd symbol from right end is 1.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s such that either the 2nd or 3rd position from
the right end has a 1.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s satisfying 1m01n : m, n>=1.
• All strings of 0’s, 1’s and 2’s with any no of 0’s followed by any no of
1’s and any no of 1’s followed by any no of 2’s.
• All strings of 0’s and 1’s ending in1 and not containing substring 00.

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 Weekly Assignment

3. Prove that NFA is equivalent to DFA. [CO1]

4. Construct NFA accepting the set of all strings over {a, b} ending in
aba. Use it to construct a DFA accepting the same set of strings.
[CO1]
5. Design a NFA with epsilonthat accepts {a, b}*baaa.[CO1]
6. Design a NFA that accepts (a+b)*(ab+bba) (a+b)* i.e. strings
containing either ab or bba as substring . convert it into DFA.
[CO1]
7. Differentiate between DFA and NDFA with suitable example?
[CO1]
8. Describe various Application and Limitations of Finite Automata.
[CO1]

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 Old Question Papers

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/19Eia3VHCl3627foiH6V_j-p4X9
ZkyyC7?usp=sharing

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 Expected Questions for University Exam

• Design a NFA that accepts all the strings for input alphabet {a,b} containing
the substring abba.
• Convert NFA into equivalent DFA by taking any suitable example.
• Design the DFA that accepts an even number of a’s and even number of b’s.
• Construct the minimum state automata equivalent to DFA described below:

• Check with the comparison method for testing equivalence of two FA

given below:

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 Recap

• Finite automata is a machine that acccepts regular languages.

• FA has its application in many fields like compiler design, digital
circuits, etc.
• NFA and DFA has same expressive power.
• NFA is easy to construct than DFA.
• Every NFA is equivalent to DFA.
• Myhill-Nerode theorem is used to optimize the FA.

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Unit I
 References

• Hopcroft, J. E., Motwani, R., & Ullman, J. D. (2001). Introduction to

automata theory, languages, and computation. Acm Sigact
News, 32(1), 60-65.
• Linz, P. (2006). An introduction to formal languages and automata.
Jones & Bartlett Learning.
• Mishra, K. L. P., & Chandrasekaran, N. (2006). Theory of Computer
Science: Automata, Languages and Computation. PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd..

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 Thank You

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