Unit 1

1. Turbo machinery

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Classification of Turbo machinery
1.3. Application
1.4. Thermodynamics
1.4.1.Basic thermodynamics
1.4.2.Adiabatic flow through nozzles
1.4.3.Adiabatic flow through diffusers
1.5. Compressible flow
1.6. Basic relations
 1.1. Introduction
What is “Turbomachinery”?
 Turbo is latin origin which means spins or whirls around.
 Class of fluid machines having, as its characteristics, the transfer of

energy between a continuous stream of fluid and an element rotating

about a fixed axis.

As Example:-
 -Fan(ventilation fans to the factory and aero fans)
 -Pumps(Hydraulics Pumps)
 -Compressors
 -Turbines
Introduction to Turbo Machinery
DEFINITION:
A turbo machine is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a
flowing fluid and rotating element due to dynamic action. This results in
change of pressure and momentum of
the fluid.
The word turbo or turbines is of Latin origin, it means which spins or whirls
around.
TYPE:
If the fluid transfers energy for the rotation of the impeller, fixed on the
shaft, it is known as
power generating turbo machine.
If the machine transfers energy in the form of angular momentum fed to
the fluid from the rotating impeller, fixed on the shaft, it is known as power
absorbing turbo machine.
Figure . Turbine and Compressor
CLASSIFICATION OF TURBO MACHINES
1.Based on energy transfer
a)Energy is given by fluid to the rotor - Power generating turbo machine E.g.
Turbines
b)Energy given by the rotor to the fluid – Power absorbing turbo machine
c)E.g. Pumps, blowers and compressors
2.Based on fluid flowing in turbo machine
a)Water
b)Air
c)Steam
d)Hot gases
e)Liquids like petrol etc
3.Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes or blades, with
reference to the axis of shaft rotation
a)Axial flow – Axial pump, compressor or turbine
b)Mixed flow – Mixed flow pump, Francis turbine
c)Radial flow – Centrifugal pump or compressor
d)Tangential flow – Pelton water turbine
.

Fig. 2. Pelton Turbine Fig. 3. Francis Turbine Runner

Fig. 4. Modern Francis Turbine Fig. 5. Centrifugal Compressor

4.Based on condition of fluid in turbo machine
a)Impulse type (constant pressure) E.g Pelton water turbine
b)Reaction type (variable pressure) E.g. Francis reaction turbine
5. Based on position of rotating shaft
a)Horizontal shaft – Steam turbines
b)Vertical shaft – Kaplan water turbines
c)Inclined shaft – Modern bulb micro-hydel turbines

Application of Turbomachines
1. Electric Power generation ( Pelton, Francis and Kaplan Turbines)
2. Thermal Power Plants ( Steam Turbines)
3. Wind Mills
4. Aircraft Propulsion
5. Multi stage Centrifugal pumps and compressors used in Petrochemical
industries
6. Fans & blowers in furnace to produce draught
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 1.4 Thermodynamics

 1.4.1 Basic Thermodynamics laws

 In this section, the basic physical laws of fluid mechanics and

thermodynamics will be discussed.

 These laws are:

1. Conservation of mass (continuity equition)

2. The First Law of Thermodynamics.

3. Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

4. The Second Law of Thermodynamics.

 The above items are comprehensively dealt with in books on thermodynamics

with engineering applications, so that much of the elementary discussion and

analysis of these laws need not be repeated here.
Conservation of mass:
describes for uniform flow of fluid through control
volume(nozzle or turbine), the mass flow rate of fluid
becomes same at inlet of control volume and exit of control
volume. Which is

An- is the area normal to the flow An = Acosθ

θ - i s the angle between the normal and the direction of the
velocity vector
- If the flow has more than one inlet and exit, then, in steady
uniform flow, conservation of mass requires that :
Example 1.
-
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
For a uniform steady flow in a channel, the first law of thermodynamics has the form

The sum of specific internal energy u, kinetic energy 1/2V 2, and potential energy gz is
the specific energy e = u + 1\2V2 + gz of the fluid.
The sum of internal energy and flow work is defined as enthalpy h = u + pv.
The specific energy of flow

The sum of enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy is called the stagnation
enthalpy

and the first law can also be written as

-In the flow of gases the potential energy terms are small and can be neglected.
Similarly, for pumps, the changes in elevation are small and potential energy
difference is negligible.
Only for some water turbines is there a need to retain the potential energy terms. When
the change in potential energy is neglected, the first law reduces to

∆V≈0 due to there is small change between inlet and outlet

Turbo machinery flows are nearly adiabatic, so q can be dropped. Then work delivered
by a turbine is given as

and the work done on the fluid in a compressor is

EXAMPLE2.
-

Since no work is done and the flow is adiabatic, the stagnation enthalpy remains
constant h01=h02 With negligible change in potential energy, this equation
reduces to
 3 Newton’s Second Law Of Motion

 Newton’s Second Law states that the sum of all the forces acting on a control

volume in a particular direction is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the

fluid across the control volume.
 For a control volume with fluid entering with uniform velocity C1 and leaving

with uniform velocity C2, then

 Equation (1.48) is the one-dimensional form of the steady flow momentum

equation, and applies for linear momentum.

 However, turbo machines have impellers that rotate, and the power output is

expressed as the product of torque and angular velocity.

 Therefore, angular momentum is the most descriptive parameter for this system.
 4. The Second Law Of Thermodynamics: Entropy

 This law states that for a fluid passing through a cycle involving heat exchanges
1.4.2.Adiabatic flow through nozzles
 The function of the nozzle is to transform the high-pressure

temperature energy (enthalpy) of the gasses at the inlet position into

kinetic energy.
 This is achieved by decreasing the pressure and temperature of the

gasses in the nozzle.

 From Fig. 1.15, it is clear that the maximum amount of

transformation will result when we have an isentropic process

between the pressures at the entrance and exit of the nozzle.
 The rate of diffusion is very low, the fluid is exposed to an excessive

length of wall and friction losses become predominant.

 To minimize these two effects, there must be an optimum rate of

diffusion.
EXAMPLE

Solution: Using steam tables static enthalpy and entropy of steam at the inlet and
exit are

Stagnation enthalpies are

Had the flow been isentropic, the exit state would have corresponded to pe = 0.35
bar and Ses = Si. This is inside the vapor dome at quality
-
 1.4.3 Adiabatic flow through diffusers

 The diffuser efficiency ηd is defined in a similar manner to compressor

efficiency (see Fig. 1.16):

 The purpose of diffusion or deceleration is to convert the maximum

possible kinetic energy into pressure energy.

 The diffusion is difficult to achieve and is rightly regarded as one of the

main problems of turbo machinery design.

 This problem is due to the growth of boundary layers and the separation of

the fluid molecules from the diverging part of the diffuser.

 If the rate of diffusion is too rapid, large losses in stagnation pressure are

inevitable. On the other hand, if

 1.5. Compressible flow
 For perfect gases with constant specific heat (Cp) the enthalpies
are only a function of temperature as follows;

 Furthermore the gas law for a perfect gas relates

temperatures and pressures for an isentropic process as given below;

 where ᵞ is non-dimensional and stands for the ratio of specific heats

to specific volume;
2) Isentropic efficiency in Compressor

 Total-to-total isentropic efficiency (Compression)

Note that
 For adiabatic real processes the entropy must always increase during the
change of state;
 Due to this increase in entropy the real change in energy is smaller than the

ideal during expansion. In other words, you get out less energy from the real
process than you could have from an ideal one;
 For the compression process the increase in entropy signifies that you need

to put in more energy to compress a fluid than you would have in an ideal
process.
 Therefore the efficiency is always smaller or equal to unity

 The only way to reduce entropy would be to cool a process. However

in such case we do no longer look into adiabatic processes.

1.6. Basic relations

Relating Isentropic Equations with Gas States;

 Next the focus is drawn towards the calculation of efficiencies
and states. For perfect gases with constant specific heat the
enthalpies are only a function of temperature as follows;
 From the above discussion of gas laws, it is shown that,
 By expressing by T02s

 The isentropic enthalpy difference can be written as;

 To obtain the real change in enthalpy the efficiency must be

accounted for as shown above yielding;
 Note that the above equation represents a rather common

problem; very often the inlet state to a gas turbine is given by

(P,T), e.g. from conditions after a combustion chamber.
 Furthermore the exit pressure of the turbine might be set.

 As approximation it can also be assumed that Po2s=Po2.

 By knowing (or assuming) the efficiency the real change in

enthalpy can thus easily be calculated.

Polytrophic Efficiency

 As for the isentropic efficiency the polytrophic efficiency relates a real process

to an ideal one. The main difference however is that the ideal process in this
case is not taken as the single isentropic change of state but rather the flow
work, which is defined as follows;

 Thus the definition of polytrophic efficiency is given by

 The flow work is not easily visualized in the h-s diagram. It can be understood

as infinite number of infinitesimal small isentropic changes of state that follow

the real expansion line like a saw tooth curve, see the figure below. This
consideration also leads to the polytrophic efficiency sometimes being referred
to as “small-stage efficiency”.
 The flow work is not easily visualized in the h-s diagram.
 It can be understood as infinite number of infinitesimal small
isentropic changes of state that follow the real expansion line like
a saw tooth curve, see the following figure.
 This consideration also leads to the polytrophic efficiency
sometimes being referred to as “small-stage efficiency”.
 Note that the sum of all these infinitesimal isentropic changes

is greater than the single isentropic change from 1 to 2s.

 This is due to the fact that the isobars are spread apart with

increasing entropy, which in turn is due to the slope of the isobars

being proportional to the temperature as follows;
 By knowing the polytrophic efficiency, it is possible to apply the gas
law as introduced further above to polytrophic changes by
reformulating

 The coefficient “n” is thereby referred to as polytrophic coefficient and is

related to the isentropic exponent as follows;
 ->Expansion process;

 ->Compression process;
 By applying directly the concept from total enthalpy change;

 The presence of the polytrophic efficiency in the exponent reflecting the

polytrophic coefficient. By substituting these expressions into the above

equations;
 Relationship between isentropic (overall) efficiency, pressure ratio and
small stage (polytrophic) efficiency for a compressor
 Turbine isentropic efficiency against pressure ratio for various
polytrophic efficiencies;
h-s diagram for Axial Compressors and
Turbines
Remarks :
 Enthalpy drop in stator equal to enthalpy drop in rotor; therefore
P1>P2>P3.
 Static conditions at stator outlet equal to rotor inlet;

 Polytrophic expansion line connects static conditions;

 Total enthalpy constant in stator, Rothalpy constant in rotor

 Enthalpy drop in rotor equal to zero; therefore P3≈P2(in reality a small

pressure drop is necessary)

 Static conditions at stator outlet equal to rotor inlet

 Polytrophic expansion line connects static conditions

 Total enthalpy constant in stator, Rothalpy constant in rotor.

End!