CONNECTIVE TISSUE

(CT)

By
Tilahun Alemayehu Nigatu, Assistant
Professor in Biomedical Sciences,
JU, July 2022
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE (CT)
– Includes most diversified group of supportive tissues (exist
as diverse morphological and functional forms) = confer
diverse structural and functional forms.
– The most widespread tissue (widely distributed in the
body)
– named for only one of its ordinary functions i .e.
connecting or binding different tissues or organs together,
and carrying their blood & nerve supply
– Sometimes also called supportive ti ssue
– Neither of these names adequately address the
structure and function of this tissue to i ts full extent.
– derived from an embryonic tissue = Mesenchyme
 FUNCTIONS of CTs
– CTs have a number of important functions:
– provide structural, metabolic, functional and nutritional
support
– form foundations or the framework of the body to/in
which other tissues are attached/supported or
protected
– Forms fibrofatty stroma of organs and glands
– provide insulating & storage depot of energy (fat)
– play a vital role in the defense mechanism of the body
& ti ssue repair after ti ssue injury.
 Functions of CTs
– Binding of tissues
and organs
together
– Support
– Physical
protection
– Immune
protectio
n
– Storage
– Heat
productio
 Summary of the functions of connective
1. tissues:
Bind, connect, support and form the skeleton of most
body organs or the entire human body.
2. Defense function through i ts contents of phagocytic and
other immune cells and production of antibodies.
3. Nutrition and storage of l ipids, water, electrolytes
(minerals such as calcium, phosphates, etc) and
plasma
proteins.
4. It i s a medium for the transport of different vital
materials between the blood and the connective ti ssues.
5. It i s a mirror for the different endocrinal diseases
e.g. myxedema, caused by an underactive or
atrophied thyroid gland, or dry swelling of the skin
 General Characteristics of CTs
1. Consist of CT cells and abundant extracellular matrix (fibers and
ground substance)

2. Unlike epithelial tissues, CT cells are widely separated by abundant

intercellular substance (ECM).
3. The character of the ECM is different from one CT to another by the
abundance & types of fibers, ground substance molecules & mineral
aggregates.
4. In CT proper, the extracellular substance is soft, in cartilage it is firm but
flexible, while in bone it is rigid and solid due to deposition of inorganic
salts in the matrix. In blood and lymph, the ECM is fluid.
5. Originate from the mesoderm or neural crest of the embryo.
6. CT is generally well vascularized and heavily innervated, except for
cartilages and stroma of cornea.
Distinguishing Features of Connective Tissues
1. Less cellularity
2. Matrix abundance
3. High vascularity
4. Morphological diversity
5. Wide distribution
6. Subepithelial distribution
7. Functional diversity: including structural, nutritive
and metabolic supportive functions
8. Regenerative capability
9. Cellular variety
10. Constituting stroma of organs and glands
11. Heavy innervation
12. Mesenchymal origin
 ORGANIZATION of CT

Connective Tissue

Extracellular
CT Cells
matrix)

CT Fibers Tissue
Ground substance fluid

Collagen Reticular Elastic GAGs Proteoglycans Glycoproteins

Types, Sources and Lineages of CT
Cells

Source: M. Ross
 CT Extracellular matrix

Ground Tissue
CT Fibers
substance fluid

Collagenous Reticular Elastic

 Composition of Connective Tissue

What do you NOT see a lot of in this micrograph of CT?

 Loose Areolar
Categories of CT
– Fibrous connective
tissue (a.k.a. connective
tissue proper)
– Supportive/skeletal
connective tissue
– Fluid connective
(Blood)
tissue Bone

Cartilage
 Fibrous Connective Tissue (CT Proper)
– Most diverse and ordinary type of CT.
– Contain extremely conspicuous fibers – hence the name,
fibrous connective tissue.
– Also known as ordinary CT or CT proper because in
includes the familiar types of CTs such as tendon,
ligaments, fascia, retinacula, etc, which have
binding/connecting functions.
– Consists of cells suspended in tissue fluid, fibers, and
something called ground substance.
– Of these three, which you do suppose is typically
NOT that much abundant?
– The illustrations on the next two slides show 3 -D models of
ordinary CT with some typical CT fibers, typically made of
multiple strong filamentous proteins twisted about one
another.
Composition of ordinary connective tissue (CT
Proper)
Fibroblast Macrophage Plasma cell Mast cell

Ground
substanc
e
Elastic
fiber

Collage
n fiber

Endothelial cell Eosinophil Adipocyt Lymphocyte

Composition of ordinary connective tissue (CT
Proper)
 Fibers in Fibrous Connective Tissue:
1. Collagenous
Fibers
2. Reticular
Fibers
3. Elastic
Fibers

Collagen Fibers as
seen by scanning
electron microscope
 1.Collagenous Fibers (KOL-a-jen; colla = glue, gen= produced)
– tough, fi rm, inelastic fibers which resist the tensile forces
upon the tissues (flexible but with extremely high tensile
strength), also called white fibers.
– the most common fibers in connective tissue and the most
abundant proteins in the body.
– Although fresh collagen fibers are colorless strands, when
present in large numbers (e.g, in tendons) they appear
white.
– The highly regular orientation of subunits in collagen fibers
makes them birefringent under the polarizing microscope.
– In the l ight microscope, collagen fibers are acidophilic;
they stain pink with eosin, blue with Mallory
trichrome stain, green with Masson tri chrome stain,
and red with Sirius red.
Blue stained collagenous tissue in Lamina
propria (Mallory Trichrome stain)
Pink stained collagenous tissue of Tunica albuginea , Testis (HE stain)

19
 Collagenous Fibers
– synthesized by different types of cells in d/t tissues:
fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, odontoblasts,
reticular cells, adipocytes, smooth muscle fibers, etc
– ultrastructurally consists of:
– Collagen macromolecules called Tropocollagens
running parallel and overlapping each other.
– Tropocollagens form collagen fibrils, each of which
represents a structural unit (the unit fibrils of
collagen).
– Each unit fibril shows transverse bands.
– Each tropocollagen molecule is a right-handed triple
helix formed by intertwining of three procollagen -
– Each procollagen -polypeptide chain is rich in amino
acids: proline, hydroxyproline, hydroxylysine and glycine
– Every third amino acid in the chain is a glycine
molecule, except at the ends of the -chains.
– A hydroxyproline or hydroxylysine frequently precedes
each glycine in the chain, and a proline frequently
follows each glycine in the chain.
– Along with proline and hydroxyproline, the glycine is
essential for the triple-helix conformation.
– Associated with the helix are sugar groups that are
joined to hydroxylysyl residues.
 Collagen Synthesis 1. Translation
polypeptide chains 
of procollagen on
ribosomes of the RER.
2. Translocation into RER lumen,
removal of signal peptide at N-
and C-terminals to yield
procollagen polypeptides.
1 3. Hydroxylation (circles) of
selected prolines and lysines
4. Glycosylation (triangles) of
2 selected hydroxylysines
– Self-assembly through
interwining of three  pp
3 chains into one tropocollagen
triple helix in RER cisternae.
– Vitamin C is important in
4 collagen synthesis as cofactor
for prolyl-hydroxylase.
Collagen synthesis cont’d….

(tropocollagen
)
– The procollagen  chains form long left-
handed helices (~600 to 3,000 amino
acids long) consisting of repeating amino
acid triplets: Gly-X-Y (left)
– Three  pp chains of the same (homo-
trimeric) or different (heterotrimmeric)
types intertwine to form a tropocollagen
triple helix (right).
– At least 42 different procollagen 
chains are encoded by different genes.
– Fibrous (fiber-forming) collagens:
consists of tropocollagen molecules of
only triple helical domains.
– Non-fibrous collagens: contain tropo-
collagens of triple  pp chains with
 Assembly of collagen molecules into collagen fibers
– The following slide shows an aggregate of collagen
molecules into fibrils, fibers, and bundles in collagen type I.
– There is a stepwise overlapping arrangement of rod l ike
collagen molecules (tropocollagens), each measuring 300
nm in length and 1.5 nm thick (1).
– This arrangement results in the production of alternating
spaces and overlapping regions (2), which cause the cross-
striations characteristic of polymeric collagen fibrils (20-90
nm in diam, 50nm on average & several μm long) which
confer a 67 nm periodicity of dark and light bands (3).
– Collagen fibrils aggregate and are covalently cross-linked
to form fibers (4), which in collagen type I further
aggregate further to form collagen bundles (5) routinely
called collagen fibers (1 to 20 μm in diameter) seen by
This diagram shows extracellular polymerization of collagen
molecules (tropocollagens) to form fibrils, fibers, and bundles.
– Three procollagen polypeptide -chains form one tropocollagen
triple helix. Tropocollagen molecules are ~300 nm long, ~1.5 nm
wide. Tropocollagens assemble head-to-tail and side-to-side
(staggered) to form a collagen fibril (20 to 90 nm in diam & several μm long).
COLLAGEN FIBERS TYPE I BY TEM
– Around 28 types of collagens have been identified and
designated with Roman numerals (I–XXVIII) based their
chronolgy.
– Each type i s distinguishable by i ts molecular
composition,
morphologic characteristics, distribution, function, and
pathologies.
1. Type I: in ordinary connective tissues, bone, dentine, fibrocartilage,
capsule of organs.
2. Type II: in hyaline and elastic cartilages, nucleus pulposus.
3. Type III (reticular fibers): lymphoid organs, spleen, skin, lens capsule,
stroma of organs such as liver, kidneys, lung, and vessels.
4. Type IV: in basal lamina: collagen fibrils assemble as a lattice-like
network.
5. Type V: fetal membranes, placenta, & with type I.
6. Type VI: Forms part of the cartilage matrix immediately
Collagen
Form Tissue
Type
Synthesizing Cells
large banded
I bone, dentin, skin, tendons, ligaments, fibroblast, osteoblast,
cornea, fibrocartilage, internal odontoblast
fibers and bundles organs(~90% of body collagen)
Fibrils (50 nm cartilage (hyaline and elastic), and
II chondroblast
thick) nucleus pulposus of IVDs
fibroblast, reticular cell,
III Fibrils and small internal organs
(e.g., reticular fibers in lymph nodes, smooth muscle cell,
banded fibers
spleen, liver, blood vessels, skin) hepatocyte
Sheet-like, two- basal lamina (lamina densa) and epithelial cell, muscle
IV dimensional cross- external lamina cell, Schwann cell,
linked network adipocyte
same as type I (polymerizes with
V fibril, thin fibers fibroblast
type I fibril to regulate properties)
VII Networked fibrils beneath epithelia (anchoring fibrils) Epithelial cells
cartilage
IX fibril-associated chondroblast
(lateral association with type II)
forming bone
X network chondrocytes
(hypertrophic zone of growth plate)
XI fibril, thin fibril
same as type II (polymerizes with type chondroblast
 Types of Collagenous fibers
Four mains structural & functional distinct groups of
collagens:
1. Fiber-forming collagens (tropocollagens): form the classic
collagen fibers (type I,II,III,V & XI) which interact with each other and
ECM component through fibril-associated collagens (type IX, XII & XIV)
2. Fibril-associated collagens (type IX, XII & XIV)
3. Network-forming collagens (type IV): are collagens which
form the lamina densa of basal lamina & external lamina.
4. Anchoring collagen (type VII)
– Collagen that forms anchoring fibrils that bind the
basal lamina to reticular fibers in the underlying CT.
– Anchors epithelial basal lamina to underlying stroma
– Has, a globular terminal domain (450 nm) at each end
Collagen type IV in basal lamina
 Mutations in collagen
Collagen Diseases –
 chains can lead to:
A: Failed assembly and
degradation of procollagen
molecules
B: Formation of abnormal
triple helices
(tropocollagens), fibrils, &
fibers
– Defective  chains can
interfere with assembly
of normal chains; this
explains the dominant
inheritance of some
collagen diseases.
– Ehlers-Danlos syndrome - commonly shows
hyperextensible skin and joints, skin fragility, and reduced
wound healing

– Keloid syndromes - elevated, irregular, enlarging scar due

to excess collagen deposition in dermis during CT repair.
– Necrobiotic disorders - disorders characterized by
swelling, basophilia, and distortion of collagen bundles in
the dermis.
– Osteogenesis imperfecta - results from defective
biosynthesis of type I collagen; characterized by brittle,
osteoporotic, and easily fractured bones; may also result
in loose joints, and imperfect dentin formation; four
major types (I-IV).
Collagen Diseases cont’d…. Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (EDS)
– a genetic disease causing
progressive deterioration of
collagens
– affect joints, heart valves,
organ walls, arterial walls,
etc.
– deficient type III collagens
resulting in defective
collagen
– joint hypermobility, skin
extensibility, and tissue
fragility
– s ix major forms, all of
which
 Types of EDS
1. Classical EDS - defects in proa1 or proa2 chains of
collagen
type V in many, but not all, families; autosomal dominant
2. Hypermobility EDS - defects unknown; autosomal
dominant
3. Vascular EDS - structural defects in proa1 chain of collagen
type III encoded by the COLIII3A1 gene; autosomal
dominant
4. Kyphoscoliosis - deficiency of lysylhydroxylase, a collagen-
modifying enzyme; autosomal recessive
5. Arthrochalasia - deficient processing of N-terminal end of
proa 1 or proa2 chains of collagen type I; autosomal
dominant
Table: Examples of clinical disorders (Collagenopathies)
resulting from defects in collagen synthesis .
Disorder Defect Symptoms
Faulty transcription or Aortic and/or intestinal
Ehlers-Danlos type III translation of collagen rupture
type III

Ehlers-Danlos type VI Faulty lysine Augmented skin elasticity,

hydroxylation rupture of eyeball

Ehlers-Danlos type VII Decrease in procollagen Increased articular mobility,

peptidase activity frequent luxation

Lack of vitamin C
Scurvy Ulceration of gums,
(cofactor for prolyl
hemorrhages
hydroxylase)

Osteogenesi Change of one

Spontaneous fractures,
s nucleotide in genes for
cardiac insufficiency
collagen type I
imperfecta
 2. Reticular Fibers (Collagen Type III)
– Don’t gather into bundles but tend to form delicate networks,
which stain readily only with heavy metal salts such as silver.
– Ultrastructurally, show the same banding pattern as other
collagens but are thinner, heavily glycosylated & coated with
glycoproteins.
– Individual reticular fibers form delicate three-dimensional
reticular networks that support cells in reticular tissue.
– Produced by specialized fibroblasts called reticular cells,
hepatocytes, adipocytes and smooth muscle cells .
– provide the architectural framework that creates special
microenvironments for certain reticular organs such as lung,
liver, & hematopoietic organs (lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus,
spleen, and bone marrow).
– reticular cells are dispersed & partially cover the reticular fibers
and ground substance with their cytoplasmic processes.
Reticular Fibers

Reticular cells Lymphocytes

 Reticular Fibers
– The reticular tissue
system creates a
sponge-like
structure within
which cells and
fluids are freely
mobile .
– They present also
in the reticular
lamina of
basement
membrane.
– Stained black in the
adjacent micrograph
 3. Elastic Fibers
– long, slender
slender and
and branching
branching fibers
fibersininloose
looseCTs,
CTs,but
butgathered
gathered
into coarse bundles in dense CTsCTs like
like elastic
elastic ligaments
ligaments and
and in
in
elastic cartilages.
– formed
– formed by the
by the fibroblasts,
fibroblasts, chondroblasts
chondroblasts andand vascular
vascular smooth
muscle cells.
smooth
muscle cells.
– consists of bundles of microfibrils embedded around an
amorphous
– consists component
of bundles called elastin.
of microfibrils embedded around an
amorphous component called elastin.
– undergo considerable expansion or stretch which return to the
original considerable
– undergo shape or size expansion
(highly flexible) & can which
or stretch be stretched
returnto one
andthe
to halforiginal
times itsshape
original
or length.
size (highly flexible) & can be
stretched to one and half times its original length.
– present in large arteries, larynx and trachea, ligamentum
nuchae,
– present inligamentum
large arteries,flavum,
larynxepiglottis and ligamentum
and trachea, framework of the
skin, spleen,
nuchae, lung, outer
ligamentum ear, epiglottis
flavum, etc. and framework of the
skin, spleen, lung, outer ear, etc.
– are known as yellow fibers because impart yellowish color to
– arefresh tissue
known when exist
as yellow fibersin because
abundant. impart yellowish color to
fresh tissue when exist in abundant.
 Elastic Fibers
– Made primarily of a
protein called elastin,
whose coiled structure
allows it to stretch and
snap back l ike a rubber
band.
– Account for the ability
of
the lungs, arteries, and
skin to spring back after
they are stretched.
– In addition to forming
fibers, elastin forms In this slide, “A” is an elastic fiber
fenestrated membranes (stains black) – what do you
(laminae) in elastic suppose “B” is?
Diagram of elastin molecules and their interaction: Elastin molecules are
shown joined by covalent bonding between desmosine and
isodesmosine (purple) to form a cross-linked network. Inset shows
enlargement of the elastin molecule in its individual and random- coiled
conformation with the covalent bond formed by desmosine.
 E C

E E

Electron micrograph of an elastic fiber. The elastin (E) of the fiber has a
relatively amorphous appearance. The fibrillin microfibrils (arrows) are
present at the periphery and within the substance of the fiber. A number
of collagen fibrils (C) are also present in this electron micrograph.
Elastic fibers in relaxed state (Elastic cartilage)
Collagen bundles
 C
C

E
C

Scanning electron micrograph of an elastic fiber. This scanning electron

micrograph of the human dens irregular connective tissue from the
dermis shows structure of elastic fiber (E) and illustrate it’s relative size in
comparison to surrounding collagen fibrils (C). Note the presence of small
fibrillin microfibrils (arrows) at the surface of elastic fiber x40,000.
 Biogenesis of Elastic Fibers (elastogenesis)
– Fibrillin-1 microfibrils are laid down first.
– Elastin is added secondarily but soon forms the bulk of the fiber.
– Fibrillin-1 is a nonsulfated filamentous glycoprotein of about 350
kilodalton that forms fine microfibrils measuring 10 to 12 nm in
diameter.
– During the early stages of elastogenesis, fibrillin-1 microfibrils are
used as substrates for the assembly of elastic fibers.
– The microfibrils are formed first; elastin material is then deposited on
the surface of the microfibrils.
– Elastin-associated fibrillin microfibrils play a major role in organizing
elastin into fibers.
– The absence of fibrillin microfibrils during elastogenesis results in the
formation of elastin sheets or lamellae, as found in blood vessels.
 Biogenesis of Elastic Fibers (elastogenesis)
– A precursor molecule, tropoelastin, i s released by
fibroblasts or smooth muscle cells & polymerizes
extracellulary to form elastin molecules.
– Elastin (72 kilodaltons), l ike collagen i s rich in glycine
and proline but i t i s poor in hydroxyproline and lysine
and completely lacks & hydroxylysine.
– In addition, elastin has valine and two other amino acids,
desmosine & isodesmosine that are specific to elastin.
– The random distribution of glycines makes the elastin
molecule hydrophobic and allows for random coiling of its
fibers, permiting elastic fibers to “slide” over one another
or to be stretched and then recoil to their original state.
 Biogenesis of Elastic Fibers (elastogenesis)
– Elastin also contains desmosine and isodesmosine, two
large amino acids unique to elastin, which are responsible
for the covalent bonding of elastin molecules to one
another.
– These covalent bonds link four elastin molecule into eithe
desmosine or isodesmosine cross-links.
– Elastin forms fibers of variable thicknesses, or lamellar
layers (as in elastic arteries).
– Elastin is encoded by one of the largest genes in the
human genome.
– The elastin gene consists of 28 ki lobases, but less
than 10% of the kilobasescarry the sequence that
encodes elastin. the newly deposited elastin.
 Biogenesis of Elastic Fibers (elastogenesis)
– In mature fibers, the fibrillin microfibrils are located
within the elastic fiber and at its periphery.
– The presence of microfibrils within the fiber i s
associated with the growth process; thus, as the fiber is
formed and thickens, the microfibrils become
entrapped within the
newly deposited elastin.
 Marfan syndrome (MAR-fan)
– i s an inherited disorder caused by a defective fibrillin gene
which results in abnormal development of elastic fibers.
– Tissues ri ch in elastic fibers are malformed or weakened.
– Structures affected most seriously are the covering layer o
bones (periosteum), the elastic ligaments that suspend the
lens of the eye and the penis and the walls of the large
arteries such as aorta.
– A common symptom is blurred vision caused by
displacement of the lens of the eye.
– The most life-threatening complication of Marfan
syndrome is weakening of the aorta (the main artery that
 Pseudoxanthoma elasticum
– an autosomal recessive hereditary disease
– caused by calcification & fragmentation of elastic
fibers
– affects the skin, the eyes & the cardiovascular
system
 Ground Substance
– a transparent, gel-like amorphous material of
variable
viscosity in which cells & fibers are embedded .
– consists of long-chain of carbohydrates usually
associated with proteins, & highly hydrated.
– includes glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans
and glycoproteins.
– GAGs and proteoglycans are highly viscous
hydrophilic, complex polyanionic
macromolecules.
– Glycoproteins are multiadhesive molecules
(fibronectin, laminin, and others) that imparts
strength and rigidity to the matrix by binding
 Ground Substance
Imagine some vegetable soup made with potatoes and very thin
– Gelatinous slices of onion and carrots. The potatoes are like CT cells, the onion
material and carrot slices are like CT fibers, and the oily Jello itself is the
ground substance.
that
occupies
the space
between
the cells
and the
fibers in
connective
tissues.
 1. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
– are large polyanionic carbohydrate moieties formerly
called mucopolysaccharides.
– l inear (unbranched) long repeating disaccharide chains
containing repeated aminated sugars.
– the disaccharide monomer contains one hexuronic acid
(glucuronic or iduronic) and one hexosamine (D-
glucosamine or D-galactosamine)
– can be sulfated or non-sulfated
a. Sulfated GAGs b. Non-sulfated GAG
– chondroitin-4-sulfate hyaluronic acid- is the chie
– chondroitin-6-sulfate GAG in all loose CTs
– dermatan sulfate
– heparan sulfate
– keratan sulfate
Glycosamino- Repeating Di saccharides Electrostatic
glycan (GAG) Interaction with
Hexuronic Acid Hexosamine Distribution Collagens
Hyaluronic acid Umbilical cord, sy novial fluid, vitreous
D- D-glucosamine
humor, cartilage, loose CTs
glucuronic
Chondroitin 4- acid Cartilage, bone, High levels of
D- interaction, mainly
sulfate D- galactosamine cornea, skin, with collagen type II
glucuronic notochord, aorta
acid High levels of
Chondroitin 6- D- Cartilage, interaction, mainly
sulfate galactosamine umbilical cord, with collagen type II
D- skin, aorta (media)
glucuronic
acid
Dermatan L-iduronic acid D- Skin, tendon, Low levels of
sulfate or D-gluc- galactosamine aorta (adventitia) interaction, mainly
uronic acid Heart valves with collagen type I
Heparan D-glucuronic D- Aorta, lung, liver, Intermediate levels
sulfate acid or L- galactosamine basal laminae of interaction,mainly
iduronic acid and external with collagens type
laminae III & IV
Keratan sulfate D-galactose D-galactos- Cornea None
I (cornea) amine
Keratan sulfate D-galactose D-glucosamine Bone, None
Repeating disaccharides of
glycosaminoglycans:

– contain an N-acetylated
sugar and a uronic acid,
which usually is glucuronic
acid or iduronic acid. Heparan sulfate

– Sulfate groups are often

present but are not
included in the sugar
names in this figure.
 2.Proteoglycans
– are class of macromolecules formed by several GAGs side chains
attached to a central core protein.
– found in the ground substance of all CTs and also as membrane-
bound molecules on the surface of many cell types.
– upon secretion make up important parts of the extracellular matrix
(ECM) & are responsible for the gel-like state of the ECM.
– have a bottle-brush configuration with a long protein core to which
numerous sulfated GAG side-chains are covalently bound.
– the carboxyl and –OH groups located on many of the sugars, and the
sulfate ions impart strong negative charge, which attracts sodium ions in
the extracellular environment and these in turn hold large amount of
water.
– most of the extracellular (tissue) fluid exist in this state.
– this bound water acts as a medium by which nutrients, gases &
metabolites can be exchanged between blood & cells. This also
cushions and gives the tissue swelling appearance.
 Proteoglycans
– probably attributable to the main bulk or volume of the basal
laminae.
– consist of a protein core to which heparan sulfate (e.g., perlecan,
agrin), chondroitin sulfate (e.g., bamacan), or dermatan sulfate side
chains are attached.
– Because of their highly anionic character, these molecules are
extensively hydrated.
– They also carry a high negative charge; this quality suggests that
proteoglycans play a role in regulating the passage of ions across the
basal lamina.
– The most common heparan sulfate proteoglycan found in all basal
laminae is the large multidomain proteoglycan perlecan (400
kilodaltons). It provides additional cross-links to the basal lamina by
binding to laminin, type IV collagen, and entactin/nidogen.
 Proteoglycans
Agrin (500 kilodalton)
– is another important proteoglycan molecule found almost exclusively
in the glomerular basement membrane of the kidney.
– It plays a major role in renal filtration as well as in cell-to–
extracellular matrix interactions.

Syndecan (33 kd)

– Contains both heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate containing
proteoglycan
– at least four different types of transmembrane proteoglycans are
known
 Proteoglycans Aggregates
– Li nk proteins noncovalently bind the protein core of
proteoglycans to the linear hyaluronic acid molecule to
form proteoglycan aggregates.
– Unlike a glycoprotein, a proteoglycan's carbohydrate chain
are greater in weight and volume than the protein core of
the molecule.
– GAGs and many acidic glycoproteins do not undergo the
PAS reaction, but because of their high content of
anionic carboxyl and sulfate groups show a strong
electrostatic
interaction with alcian blue and other basic stains and
impart blue color to ti ssues.
Most common proteoglycans and/or their aggregates in CTs
 3. Structural Glycoproteins
– are a group of large protein molecules to which short
branched chains of monosaccharides are covalently
attached.
– their polypeptide content is greater than their
polysaccharide content.
– in matrix, they are multiadhesive binding proteins and also
act as receptors.
– bind cells together (via integrins), cell parts (such as
cytoskeleton), fibers, & GAGs or proteoglycans.
– include two fibril-forming molecules (fibronectin and
fibrillin) and a number of non-filamentous proteins
including laminin, entactin, tenascin, chondronectin,
osteonectin, and osteocalcin which function as links
between cells and extracellular matrix.
The major structural features of
proteoglycans and glycoproteins. (a):
Proteoglycans contain a core of protein
(vertical rod in drawing) to which molecules
of sulfated GAGs are covalently bound. A
GAG is made up of repeating disaccharides;
one component is an amino sugar, and the
other is uronic acid.
Proteoglycans contain a greater amount of
carbohydrate than do glycoproteins. In
general the three-dimensional structure of
proteoglycans can be pictured as a test tube
brush, with the wire stem representing the
core protein and the bristles representing
the sulfated GAGs. (b): Glycoproteins are
globular protein molecules to which
branched chains of monosaccharides are
covalently attached.
ECM COMPONENTS
 FIBRONECTIN (250 to 280 kilodaltons
– i s the most abundant glycoprotein in CT
– Consists of dimer molecules formed from two s imilar
peptides l inked by disulfide bonds at a carboxy terminus
to
form 50-nm-long arms.
– Each molecule contains several binding domains that
interact with different ECM molecules (e.g.,
heparan
sulfate; collagen types I, II, and III; fibrillin;
hyaluronan; and
fibronectin) and integrin, a cell-surface receptor.
– Binding to an integrin activates fibronectin, which then
assembles into fibrils.
– Fibronectin plays an important role in cell attachment to
 Laminin (140 to 400 kilodaltons)
– cross-shaped glycoprotein molecule present in basal and
external laminae.
– composed of three polypeptide chains.
– essential in initiating the assembly of the basal lamina.
– possesses binding sites for different integrin receptors in
the basal domain of the overlying epithelial cells
– involved in many cell-to–extracellular matrix interactions
and also play roles in the development, differentiation, and
remodeling of epithelium.
– There are approximately 15 different variations of laminin
molecules, each possesses binding sites for collagen type
IV molecules, heparan sulfate, heparin, entactin, laminin,
and the laminin receptor on the cell surface.
 Ordinary Connective Tissue Cells
– Functionally, classified into three types with some
overlapping functions:
1. Cells which maintain the tissue itself by synthesizing,
elaborating and renewing the matrix components:
– include fibroblasts, fibrocytes, reticular cells,
mesenchymal cells and myofibroblasts (these cells
have also contractile function in healing wounds)
2. Cells responsible for the storage & metabolism of fat.
These are known as adipocytes and may collectively
form adipose tissue.
3. Cells with defense and immune function and tissue repair.
This group of cells includes the mast cells and tissue
macrophages and all types of leukocytes and their
 Ordinary Connective Tissue Cells
Fixed (Resident) cells
– Fibroblasts and fibrocytes
– Reticular cells
– Myofibroblasts(observed during wound healing)
– Adipocytes/Fat cells (white or yellow and brown)
– Mast cells
– Fixed macrophages (histiocytes), mesenchymal cells
Transient or Wandering cells
– Plasma cells
– Neutrophils
– Eosinophils
– Basophils
– Lymphocytes, monocytes & Transient macrophages
 MESENCHYMAL CELLS
– a population of undifferentiated cells, embedded in gel-
l ike, amorphous ground substance containing scanty
scattered reticular fibers.
– are typically star-like cells with many shapes, having
large
euchromatic nucleus and prominent nucleoli which
indicate high levels of synthetic activity.
– multipotential stellate cells (many cytoplasmic processes)
with pale staining scanty cytoplasm, and rather larger
oval nucleus.
Mesenchyme: consists of mesenchymal cells surrounded by an extracellular
matrix which they produced and which in turn consists largely of a simple
loose ground substance rich in hyaluranon (hyaluronic acid). This section is
stained with Masson trichrome which stains collagen fibers green and the lack
of collagen in mesenchyme is apparent.
 FIBROBLASTS
Fibro==fiber,
– Fibro fiber,blast
blast==forming/making
forming/making
Elongatedfusiform
– Elongated fusiformcells
cellswith
withpale
pale
staining cytoplasm and large
granular, ovoid nucleus with
prominent nucleoli reflecting active
protein synthesis.
– –produce
produceextracellular
extracellularmatrix
matrix(fibers
(fibers
and ground substance) in ordinary
CTs.
– –derived
derivedfrom
from undifferentiated
undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells.
– –Present
Presentnearby
nearbycollagen
collagenfibers.
fibers.
Fibrocytesare
– Fibrocytes areinactive/quiescent
inactive/quiescent
forms of fibroblasts characterized by
flattened condensed nucleus.
Both active (arrow) and quiescent fibroblasts (fibrocytes ) ma
sometimes be distinguished, as in this section of dermis. Active
fibroblasts are large cells with large, euchromatic nuclei and
basophilic cytoplasm, whereas inactive fibroblasts or fibrocytes are
smaller with less prominent, heterochromatic nuclei. The ver
basophilic round cells are leukocytes.
Ultrastructure of fibroblasts
 Dense regular connective tissue—tendon.
Electron micrograph of a
tendon at low magnification,
showing tendinocytes
(fibroblasts) and their thin
processes (arrows) lying
between the collagen bundles
with prominent profiles of RER.
The collagen fibers (C) can be
resolved as consisting of very
tightly packed collagen fibrils.
Inset. Photomicrograph of a
tendon. Note the orderly and
regular alignment of the
bundles of collagen fibers.
Tendinocytes are aligned in
rows between the
 MYOFIBROBLASTS
– are
are fibroblasts
fibroblastswith
withcontractile
contractilefunctions
functionsusually
usuallyseen
seenin
in
healing wounds.
– play
– play anan
important
important
role
role
in in
contraction
contraction
and
and
shrinkage
shrinkage
ofof
the
resultant scar tissue after wound healing.
 ADIPOCYTES (L. adeps, fat, cyte= cell)
– synthesize,
synthesize,store
store&&release
releasefat
fatand
andleptin.
leptin
– appear
appear individually
individuallyor
orin
in small
smallclusters .
clustersin
isome
somefibrous
fibrousCTs.
CTs. n
– IfIf they
theydominate
dominatean anarea,
area,we
wecall
callthat
that
area
area adipose
adipose tissue.
tissue.
– Contain
Containhugehugedroplet(s)
droplet(s)ofoflipids
lipidsfor
for
storage
storage
– derived
derivedfromfrommesenchymal
mesenchymalcells.cells.
– Each
Eachcellcellrests
restsonon an
an external
externallamina
lamina
(homologous
(homologous to to basal
basal lamina
lamina of of
epithelium)
epithelium) which
which consists
consists of of reticular
reticular
fibers,
fibers, capillaries
capillaries & sympathetic
& sympathetic nerves
nerves
– they
theyare areof
oftwo
twotypes:
types:white
white&&brown
brown
adipocytes.
adipocytes.
 WHITE ADIPOCYTES (Unilocular fat cells)
– are
aresolitary
solitarycells
cellsscattered
scatteredininany anyloose
looseCTCTororgroups
groupsofofcells
cellsforming
forming
white adipose tissue (Yellow fat).
– are
– arespherical
spherical when
when isolated
isolated but
butare
arepolyhedral
polyhedral when
when closely
closelypacked
packed
in adipose tissue.
– Each
Eachcellcellisisvery
verylarge
large(50(50toto150
150µmµminindiam),
diam),and
andcontains
containsoneonehuge
huge
lipid droplet that makes up to 85% of the cell's weight.
– Large
– Large cell with a single
cell with fat droplet
a single = unilocular
fat droplet fat cell,
= unilocular fat because
cell, because
triglycerides
triglycerides arearestored in ainsingle
stored locus
a single locus
– TheThelarge
largedroplet
dropletcauses
causesthe thecells
cellstotohave
havea aflattened
flattenedeccentric
eccentric
(signet ring appearance) nucleus usually pressed against the cell
membrane.
– Yellow
– Yellow in color
in color
– Since
Sincelipid
lipidisisremoved
removedfrom fromcells
cellsby
bythe
thealcohol
alcoholand
andxylene
xyleneused
usedinin
routine histological techniques, a unilocular adipocyte appears in
standard microscope preparations as a thin ring of cytoplasm
surrounding the empty vacuole left by the dissolved lipid droplet,
sometimes referred to as the signet ring cell.
 BROWN ADIPOCYTES (multilocular fat cells)
– form
formbrown
brownadipose
adiposetissue.
tissue.
Brown Fat cells
– –arearepolygonal
polygonal&&generally
generallysmaller
smallerthan
thancells
cellsofofwhite
white
adipocytes but their cytoplasm contains a great number o
ol ipid droplets of various sizes.
– lcontain
ipid droplets
many of various
small l ipidsizes.
inclusions/fat droplets (=
–multilocular
contain manyfat cell)
small l ipid inclusions/fat droplets (=
– multilocular
have spherical fatand
cell)fairly central nucleus and numerous
–mitochondria with
have spherical long
and tubular
fairly cristae.
central nucleus and numerous
– mitochondria
brown in colorwithduelong tubular cristae.
to abundant mitochondria containing
–colored
browncytochromes
in color due and the large mitochondria
to abundant number of blood
containing
capillaries around each cell.
– colored cytochromes
sympathetic neurons and the large
synapse number
on each cell of blood
 Fat storage in adipocytes
Lipid droplet
– Free fatty acids in
CT diffuse into
adipocytes and ar e
esterified to form
triglycerides that
form lipid droplet
 Histogenesis of Fat cells

Brown fat Yellow fat

 MAST CELLS/MASTOCYTES (HISTAMINOCYTES)
– are large oval or round cells about
20 µm in diameter, whose
cytoplasm is filled with basophilic
secretory granules.
– The
Therather
rathersmall,
small,spherical
sphericalnucleus
nucleusis
is centrally
centrally situated
situated andand
maymaybebe
obscured by the coarse cytoplasmic
granules.
– They
Theyare
arederived
derivedfrom
fromprecursors
precursorsinin
bone
bone marrow.
marrow.
– found
foundininloose
looseCTCTadjacent
adjacenttotoblood
blood
vessels and body surfaces (dermis of
skin and lamina propria of digestive
and respiratory tracts).
L E
– Their
Theircytoplasm
cytoplasmhavehavelarge
largebasophilic M M
basophilic
metachromaticmetachromatic granules
granules containing
containing heparin, and
heparin, histamine histamine
many and
other
many other mediators.
mediators.
Mast cells are components of loose connective tissues, often located near small blood vessels:
They are typically oval-shaped, with cytoplasm filled with strongly basophilic granules.
Ultrastructurally mast cells show little else around the nucleus (N) besides these cytoplasmic
granules (G), except for occasional mitochondria (M). The granule staining in the TEM is
heterogeneous and variable in mast cells from different tissues; at higher magnifications some
granules may show a characteristic scroll-like substructure (inset) that contains preformed
mediators such as histamine and proteoglycans. The ECM near this mast cell includes elastic
fibers (E) and bundles of
 Functions of Mast
– Mast cell granules contain a wide variety of paracrine cpds that
cells
promote different aspects of local inflammatory response,
innate immunity and tissue repair.
– Some important molecules released from these granules
include:
– Heparin, a sulfated GAG that acts locally as an anticoagulant
– Histamine, which promotes increased vascular permeability
and smooth muscle contraction.
– Serine proteases, which activate various mediators of
inflammation
– Eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic factors which attract
those leukocytes
– Leukotrienes C 4 , D4 , and E4 (or the slow-reacting substance
of anaphylaxis, SRS-A) which also trigger smooth muscle
contraction .
 PLASMA CELLS
– Large
Largeovoid
ovoidcells
cellswith
with
eccentrically placed nucleus.
– They
– Theyarearederived
derivedfrom
from
activated B-lymphocytes.
– reveal
revealintensely
intenselybasophilic
basophilic
cytoplasm due to abundant
RER and ribosomes.
– nucleus
nucleus
has the has the
characteristic
characteristic
“clock-face” “clock-face”
or “ra dial
or “raappearance.
spoke” dial spoke”
appearance.
– present in areas of chronic
– present in areasand
inflammation of foreign
chronic
inflammation
bodies, whereand
theyforeign
manufacture
bodies, whereand theysecrete
manufacture
antibodies.and secrete
 Features of Plasma cells
– are typical protein
secreting cells
– basophilic cytoplasm
– eccentrically placed radial
spoke or clock face or
cartwheel nucleus
partially surrounded by a
s ingle large Golgi
apparatus
– effectors cells of immune
system ferived from B
cells
– produce immunoglobuli
antibodies
 Plasma cell:
typical protein secreting cell
Plasma cells and mast cells
 MACROPHAGES/HISTIOCYTES/CLASMATOCYTES
– They
Theymay
maybebefixed
fixedor
or
transient.
– They
Theyare
arederived
derivedfrom
from
monocytes (transient) or from
hematopoietic stem cells
(fixed macrophages).
– AAtypical
typicalmacrophage
macrophage
measures
measures between 10 10
between andand
30μm in diameter and has an
oval or kidney-shaped
nucleus located eccentrically.
– Highly motile, irregular in
shape with pseudopodia.
– Have
Havedark
darknucleus
nucleusand
and
basophilic cytoplasm
containing numerous
lysosomes, vacuoles and
residual bodies.
MACROPHAGE BY EM
– They are active
phagocytes
removing cell
debris and
protecting
the
body against
foreign
invaders.
– As shown here,
a microphage i s
undergoing
phagocytosis of
streptococci
 MACROPHAGE BY TEM

– A macrophages characterized by an irregular surface with pleats,

protrusions, and indentations, a morphologic expression of their
active pinocytotic and phagocytic activities.
– Has generally well-developed Golgi apparatus, many lysosomes, and
rough ER.
Distribution & Main Functions of the Cells of the Mononuclear Phagocytic System
Cell Type Location Main Function
Monocytes Blood Precursor of macrophages

Tissue All Connective tissues, Production of cytokines, chemotactic

lymphoid organs, bone factors, and several other molecules
macrophages marrow that participate in inflammation
(Histiocytes) (defence), antigen processing and
presentation

Kupffer cell Liver Same as macrophages

Microglial cell Nerve tissue of the CNS Same as macrophages

Dust cells Lung tissue Same as macrophages

Langerhans cells Epidermis of Skin Antigen processing and presentation

Microfold cells Peyer’s patch of GIT Antigen processing and presentation

Dendritic cells Lymph nodes Antigen processing and presentation

Osteoclasts Bone (formed by fusion of Digestion of bone matrix to produce

several macrophages) bone marrow cavities
Multinuclea Connective tissue (fusion of Segregation and digestion of foreign
several macrophages) bodies
r giant cell
A section of rat skin showing several multinuclear giant cells
surrounding debris of inert elements, in this case, fragments of
cotton (*) that were experimentally introduced into the dermis
of the animal
 Wandering ordinary CT cells: are leukocytes
Eosinophil Basophil Lymphocyte
- parasitic infection - histamine - immune response
7-8-14  m
10-17  m Monocyte
9-12 m
T B
NK cell

(Hydrolytic 12-17  m
enzymes and Neutrophil Cell mediated immune response
Histaminase - phagocyte
& aryl
sulftase) (Bactericidal
enzymes)
Humoral immune response
Macrophage
- phagocyte Plasma cell - antibody
Cells
 Classification of CT
I. Embryonic CTs: II. Mature CT proper:
1. Mesenchyme A. Ordinary/Fibrous CTs
1. Loose CT
2. Mucoid (Mucous CT) a. Loose areolar
B. Specialized CTs/ CTs with b. Adipose
special properties: c. Reticular
1. Blood tissue 2. Dense CT
a. Dense regular
2. Bone tissue 1. Collagenous
3. Cartilage 2. Elastic
b. Dense irregular
1. Collagenous
2. Fibroelastic
 Types of Fibrous Connective
• Two types based on the
Tissues
relative abundance of
fibers:
1. Loose Connective Tissue
– Lots of ground
substance
and cells. Fewer fibers.
– Leaves abundant empty
spaces in tissue sections.
2. Dense Connective Tissue
– Fibers are predominant
constituents.
– Much lower number of
cells and less ground
substance.
– Fibers appear closely
 1. MESENCHYME
– i s embryonic CT mainly present in the developing embryo
– scattered between the developing organs and tissues.
– consists of a population of undifferentiated cells,
mesenchymal cells in gel-like, amorphous ground
substance containing scanty scattered reticular fibers.
Mesenchymal cells
– are typically star-like cells with many shapes, having large
euchromatic nucleus and prominent nucleoli which
indicate high levels of synthetic activity.
– multipotential stellate cells (many cytoplasmic processes)
with pale staining cytoplasm and oval nucleus.
Mesenchyme
Mesenchyme: Mesenchymal cells are surrounded by an extracellular matrix
which the y p roduced and which consists largely of a loose ground substance
rich in hyaluranon (hyaluron ic acid) . This section is stained with M asson trichro
me which stains collagen fibers blue and the lac k of collagen in mesenchyme is
apparent.
 2. MUCOID (MUCOUS) CT
– present in the umbilical cord, in the teeth and eye as filling
ti ssue , and as subdermal CT of the embryo.
– loose amorphous C.T. with a jelly-like matrix containing
hyaluronic acid and little amounts of collagen types I and
III, mesenchymal cells and fibroblasts.
Characteristics:
1 Loos e ground substance (mainly Hyaluronic acid).
2 Few fibers (type I & type III collagen fibers).
3 Fibroblasts and mesenchymal cells.
Location Sites:
1. Subdermal C.T. of the embryo
2. Umbilical cord (Wharton’s jelly).
3. Dental pulp of teeth.
Wharton’s jelly
TS of Umbilical cord showing umbilical vessels housed in
Wharton’s jelly (mucoid CT) covered by a layer of amnioblast
Developing Teeth
 II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
1. LOOSE CT
A. LOOSE AREOLAR CT (AREOLAR CT )
– i s a very– common
i s a verytype
commonof CTtype
that of
supports
CT thatmanysupportsstructure
many
which are normally under some pressure and lowstructures friction.
– which are normally
has usually underdistribution
subepithelial some pressure and lowepithelia,
supporting friction.
– forming a papillary layer of the dermis, a layer around
has usually subepithelial distribution supporting epithelia,
small blood
forming and layer
a papillary lymphatic
of the vessels,
dermis, aand layerfills
around the
spaces
small between
blood and muscle and nerve
lymphatic fibers.and fills the
vessels,
spaces
– also foundbetween
in the muscle and nerve
hypodermis, in thefibers.
linings of the
– peritoneal
also found and pleural
in the cavities, in
hypodermis, glands,
in the andofinthe
linings the
mucous membranes
peritoneal (wetcavities,
and pleural membranes thatand
in glands, l ine the
in the
hollow
mucous membranes (wet membranes that l ine the
organs)
hollowsupporting the epithelial cells.
organs)
– has supporting
all the the epithelial
main components cells. CT (cells,
of ordinary
LOOSE AREOLAR CT
 Loose Areolar CT
–– The
Themost
mostnumerous
numerouscells
cellsare
arefibroblasts
fibroblastsand
andmacrophages
macrophages
but
but all
all other
othertypes
typesofof ordinary
ordinaryCTCTcells
cells are
arealso
alsopresent.
present.
– less amount
– less of all
amount of CT
all fibers alsoalso
CT fibers appear in this
appear ti ssue.
in this ti ssue.
– With
– Witha moderate amount
a moderate amountof ground substance,
of ground loose
substance, loose
areolar connective tissue has a delicate consistency; i t i s
flexible, well vascularized, and not resistant to stress.
Locations
– inin papillary
papillarydermis
dermisof ofskin
skin&&subcutaneous
subcutaneoustitissue,
ssue,
– lamina
lamina propria
propria&&submucosa
submucosaof ofGIT&
GIT& respiratory
respiratorytracts,
tracts,
– around
aroundblood
bloodvessels
vessels&&organs
organsand
andserous
serousmembranes,
membranes,
around muscle
around musclefibers
fibers(endomysium)
(endomysium)and and nerve
nervefibers
fibers
(endoneurium).
– –accumulates
accumulateslarge
largeamount
amountofoftissue
tissuefluid
fluidand
andleads
leadstoto
tissue
tissu
 Loose Areolar CT
– Loose arrangement
of collagenous and
elastic fibers &
some reticular
fibers. (All the 3
fiber types.)
– Scattered Cells.
– All cell types can
be present
embedded in
abundant ground
substance.
– Numerous blood
vessels. (Highly
vascular.)
Loose Areolar CT with numerous cells
 Loose Areolar CT
Locations:
– Underlying nearly
all epithelia.
– Surrounding blood
vessels, nerves,
trachea, and
esophagus.
– Between muscles.
– Within
mesenteries, and
the visceral layers
of the pericardium
and the pleura.
Loose Areolar CT in Lamina propria of GIT
 b. ADIPOSE TISSUE
– Loose
LooseCT
CTrich
richininadipocytes
adipocytes
– Two
Twotypes
typesofofadipose
adiposetissues:
tissues:
1. Unilocular
Unilocularadipose
adiposetissue
tissue
(yellow fat)
––
its its
fatfat
cells areare
cells of of
unilocular
unilocular
type,
type,
––
present
present in subcutaneous
in subcutaneous
tissue,
tissue,
around
around
organs
organs
andand
neurovascular
neurovascular
bundles.
2. Multilocular
2. Multilocularadipose
adiposetissue
tissue
(brown fat)fat)
(brown
––
present
present
in infants
in infants
andand
hibernating
hibernating
animals,
animals,
–
 Functions of Adipose Tissue
– Energy storage
– Thermal
insulation
– Shock absorption
– Protective
cushioning for
some organs
– Accounts 15–20%
of the body
weight in men of
normal weight; in
women of normal
weight, 20–25%
of body weight.
 White/Yellow Adipose Tissue
Microscopic
Appearance:
– Dominated by
adipocytes – large,
empty-looking cells
with very thin rim
of cytoplasm.
– Often paler.
– Surrounded by rich
capillaries
 Unilocular (White) Adipose Tissue
– Is formed of lobules of unilocular adipose
cells.
– Highly vascular.
Function:
1 Synthesis, Storage & release of fat.
2 Thermal insulator.
3 Shock absorber.
Sites:
– Subcutaneous layers especially in buttock, hips,
palms of the hand and sole of the foot.
– Abdominal wall.
– Female breast
– Around the kidney, heart, yellow bone marrow.
N.B. White adipose T. appears only after birth.
 Brown Adipose Tissue
– The color of brown adipose tissue or
brown fat is due to both the
numerous mitochondria found in
White adipose tissue
the adipocytes and the large
number of blood capillaries in this
tissue.
– Adipocytes of brown fat are
therefore called multilocular
– The many small lipid droplets,
abundant mitochondria, and rich
vasculature all help mediate this
tissue's principal function of heat Brown adipose tissue
production.
– unlike white adipose tissue, which
is present throughout the body,
brown adipose tissue has a much
more limited distribution.
FAT LOBULES of WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE
WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE IN THE WALL OF CECUM

126
 c. RETICULAR CT
– composed
composedmainlymainlyofoftype
typeIIIIII
collagen fibers in a form of
network or mesh, fibroblasts
called reticular cells, and
lymphocytes.
– –Forms
Formssupportive
supportive
framework of liver sinusoids,
sinusoids,
red bone marrow, lymph
nodes,
red bonespleen,
marrow, smooth
lymph
muscles, i slet ofsmooth
nodes, spleen, La
ngerhans i slet of La
muscles,
ngerhans
and adiposetissues.
– and adiposetissues.
Reticular cells - synthesize
reticularcells
– Reticular fibers in lymphatic
- synthesize
ti ssues; cell
reticular
processes body
fibers and
in lymphatic
completely
ti ssues; cell body fibers
and Lymph node (silver stain)
surround reticular
RETICULAR CT

reticular cells Lymphocytes

RETICULAR CT

reticular cells Lymphocytes

RETICULAR CELLS
RETICULAR CELLS
RETICULAR CELLS, RETICULAR FIBERS, PLASMA CELLS
 2. DENSE CT
– Contains abundant amount of fibers gathered into large
bundles with fewer cells & ground substance.
a. DENSE REGULAR CT
– Has
Hastightly
tightly packedcoarse
packed coarsecollagen
collagen bundlesarranged
bundles arrangedinin parallel
parallel fashiontotoform
fashion form
cord-like cylinders (tendons, retinacula & ligaments) or sheets (aponeurosis)
& capsule of some glands (spleen, suprarenal, etc),
interosseous
interosseousmembranes,
membranes,fibrous sheaths
fibrous around
sheaths cartilage
around (perichondrium)
cartilage (perichondrium) andand
sheaths around bone (fibrous periosteum).
– Fibroblasts
Fibroblastsand
andfibrocytes
fibrocytesare
arearranged
arrangedininrows
rowsbetween
betweenthethe
collagen fibers so they appears elongated with their dash-like
elongated nuclei.
– ItItcan
canbe
becollagenous
collagenoustypetype(e.g.
(e.g.tendon,
tendon,aponeurosis,
aponeurosis,
retinacula,
retinacula,
white
white
ligaments)
ligaments)
or elastic
or elastic
typetype
(e.g.
(e.g.
ligamentum
ligamentum
nuchae,
nuchae, ligamentum
ligamentum flavum)
flavum)
– Dense
Dense collagenous
collagenous CT CTtype
typeisis also
alsoknown
knownas as white
whitefibrous
fibrousCT.
CT.
 Dense Regular Collagenous C.T
Tendon, teased
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue
– The collagen
Tendon
bundles are
arranged according
to a definite
pattern, with the
l inear orientation
of fibroblasts in
response to
prolonged stresses
exerted in the
same direction.
– This arrangement
offers great
resistance to NOTE the waviness of the fibers. What function
Tendon (CT slide 03-22)
– They have parallel, closely packed bundles of collagen separated by a
very small quantity of ground substance.
– Their fibrocytes contain elongated nuclei parallel to the fibers and
sparse cytoplasmic folds that envelop portions of the collagen
Dense regularly arranged connective tissues
(collagenous type): tendon, ligaments,retinacula, aponeurosi
Dense regularly arranged connective
tissues (elastic type), ligamentum nuchae, flavum and penis
Interosseous membranes
are examples of Dense
regular connective tissues
– Tendons and ligaments are the most common examples of dense regular
connective tissue.
– These elongated cylindrical structures hold together components of the
musculoskeletal system; by virtue of their richness in collagen fibers, they are white
and inextensible.
– Some ligaments, such as the yellow ligaments of the vertebral column, also contain
abundant parallel elastic fiber bundles.
– The collagen bundles of tendons vary in size and are enveloped by small amounts
of loose CT containing small blood vessels & nerves.
– Overall, however, tendons are poorly vascularized and repair of damaged
tendons is very slow.
– Externally, the tendon is surrounded by a sheath of loose CT (tendon sheath).
– In some tendons, this sheath is made up of two layers, both lined by loosely
arranged flattened synovial cells of mesenchymal origin. The inner layer covers
the tendon while the outer layer loosely lines neighboring structures.
– The space between these linings contains a viscous fluid (similar to the fluid of
synovial joints) composed of water, proteins, hyaluronate and other GAGs.
– This synovial secretion acts as a lubricant permitting unimpeded, easy sliding
movements of the tendon within its sheath.
 Tendon cell
- long. section
(rod shape)
- cross section
(stellate shape)
 C
Tendo
n

Tendon cell

= collagen fibers
cross- section of muscle & tendon

tendon

Muscle fibers

tendon
Ligamentum nuchae (Elastic ligament )
Ligamentum nuchae (cross
section)

Elastic fibers

Fibroblasts
(2) Elastic ( yellow fibrous ) tissue

long. section of ligamentum nuchae

 b. DENSE IRREGULAR CT
– Contains abundant amounts of fibers with less cells and
ground substances.
– Has tightly packed coarse collagen bundles arranged
randomly in all directions, with few elastic fibers.
– Fibroblasts and other fewer cells are arranged between
the collagen fibers.
Location
– reticular dermis (the deeper 4/5th of the dermis of skin),
– capsule of organs, trabecula of glands & fibrous joints
– Corpus Albicans (L., white body): a scar of white dense
fibrous connective tissue in ovary
– Sheaths around skeletal muscles (epimysium), nerves
(epineurium) and CNS (dura & arachnoid maters).
Dense Irregular CT of the lower dermis

Dense irregular CT in the reticular dermis

Locations: Dense Irregular
– Deeper portion of
dermis of skin.
CT
– Capsules around
some organs such
as testes, lymph
nodes, ganglia,
sensory receptors,
and trabeculae of
some organs like
spleen lymph node
and glands.
– Stroma of some
glands like inactive
mammary gland
Dense Irregular CT of the lower dermis
Dense Irregular CT of the lower dermis and hypodermis
Dense irregular collagenous CT with few fibroblasts
Dense Irregular CT trabecula of submandibular
gland
Dense Irregular CT of mediastinum testis
Corpus Albican (CA)
 3. ELASTIC CT
– Composed of coarse
branching Elastic fibers with
bundles of collagen fibers
and few fibroblasts and
ground substance.
– The elastic fibers are
arranged in sheets or
fenestrated lamellae.
– They are present in
the wall
of arteries, ligamentum
flavum, ligamentum
nuchae, larynx, lungs, and
suspensory ligament of
penis.
– In the wall of elastic
arteries, it forms
fenestrated elastic
Elastic C T in the wall of large artery
(Aorta)
Fenestrated Elastic laminae in the wall of Aorta, Mallory stai
 Tissue Repair
Two possibilities:
1. Regeneration  Replacement of dead or damaged
cells by the same type of cells or ti ssue as before.
– Most skin injuries heal by regeneration.
– The liver also regenerates quite well.
2. Fibrosis  Replacement of damaged tissue with scar
ti ssue, composed mainly of bundles of collagen
produced
by fibroblasts and myofibroblasts.
– Helps hold an organ together but does not restore norma
function.
– Examples include severe cuts and burns, the healing of
muscle injuries, and scarring of the lungs in tuberculosis.