ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH
BY
COL NASEER ALAM TARIQ (Retd)
WATER-2
WATER
• Water sources
• Water standards
• Water pollution
WATER PURIFICATION
PURIFICATION OF WATER
Purpose of water treatment is to produce
water that is safe and wholesome
PURIFICATION OF WATER
Purpose of water treatment is to
produce water that is safe and
wholesome
• On a large scale
PURIFICATION OF WATER
Purpose of water treatment is to produce
water that is safe and wholesome
• On a large scale
• On a small scale
Components of water purification
system
Components of water purification
system
– Storage
Components of water purification
system
– Storage
– Filtration
Components of water purification
system
– Storage
– Filtration
– Disinfection
STORAGE
• Storage is a method of natural purification
– Physical
– Chemical
– Biological
STORAGE
• Storage is a method of natural purification
• Sedimentation Preliminary to filtration,
prevents rapid clogging of filters
• Reduces suspended impurities 90% in 24 Hrs
• Reduces bacterial count 90% in 5-7 days
• Optimum storage of river water: 10-14 days
• Storage for long periods (beyond two weeks)
results in excessive algae growth, bad smell
and color to water
• Copper sulphate 1.5 kg/5000 m3 (2-10 lb per
million gallons ) for control growth of algae
FILTRATION
FILTRATION
Slow Sand or Biological Filters
FILTRATION
Slow Sand or Biological Filters
Rapid Sand or Mechanical Filters
FILTRATION
SLOW SAND FILTERS
• Four main elements:
– Water Head: a layer of raw water, 1-1.5 meters
deep
– Sand Bed: 1 meter thickness, gravel support
o.30 meter or 30-40 cm deep
– Sand grains diameter: 0.2-0.3 mm, fine
sand. Top layer easily clogged & top 3-5 cm
sand is removed periodically for washing
– Drainage system: perforated pipes
– Filter control valves
• Chemical coagulants are not used
SLOW SAND FILTER
Vital Layer or Biological Layer
• Slimy, gelatinous layer Formed on the top of
sand bed, 2-3 cm, 2-3 days
• Consists of multiple organisms including
bacteria, diatoms, planktons, algae etc
• Heart of slow sand filter
• Removes organic matter, holds back bacteria,
free water
• When thick, top layer 2-3 cm scrapped out
• Until the vital layer fully formed, filtrate is run
to waste : Ripening of the filter
Cross section of slow sand bed
Water
Sand
Gravel
Stone
Filtered water
SECTION OF FILTER BED
ADVANTAGES OF SLOW SAND FILTER
• Simple to construct and operate
• The cost of construction is cheaper than that of
rapid sand filters
• The physical, chemical and bacteriological
quality of filtered water is very high when
working ideally; slow sand filters have been
shown to reduce total bacterial counts by 99.9
to 99.99 percent and E. coli by 99 to 99.9
percent.
Rapid Sand Filter or
Mechanical Filter
Types:
Open gravity type
Closed pressure type
• Steps:
– Coagulation: Alum 5-40 mg/L
– Rapid mixing: mixing chamber
– Flocculation: Slow and gentle stirring
flocculation chamber for 30 minutes.
Flocculent precipitate of Aluminium
hydroxide, large flocs that settle more easily.
Rapid Sand or Mechanical Filters
• Steps:
– Sedimentation:
– Sedimentation tanks (2-6 hrs), flocculent +
impurities + bacteria settle down
– Filtration
– Disinfection
– this conventional treatment is not effective
in the removal of heavy metals &
radioactivity. For their removal, Absorption
on Granular Activated Carbon
VIEW OF RAPID SAND FILTER
FILTER BEDS
• Filtering Medium: sand - coarse sand
effective size of sand particles 0.4-0.7 mm,
• Depth of sand bed: 1-1.5 feet deep
• Clogging of filters by suspended
impurities and bacteria: Loss of Head
• Cleaning by back-washing daily or weekly
for 15 minutes
• Compressed air
FLOW DIAGRAM OF RAPID
SAND FILTRATION PLANT
ADVANTAGES
• Rapid sand filter can deal raw water directly
• No preliminary storage is needed
• The filter beds occupy less space
• Filtration is rapid, 40 – 50 times that of a slow
sand filter
• The washing of the filter is easy
• There is more flexibility in operation
Comparison of Rapid and Slow
Sand Filters
s. No Rapid Sand Slow Sand
Filter Filter
1. Space Occupies very Occupies large
little space area
2. Rate of 200 m.g.a.d 2-3 m.g.a.d
Filtration
3. Effective size of 0.4-0.7 mm 0.2–0.3 mm
sand
4. Preliminary Chemical Plain
treatment coagulation sedimentation
sedimentation
5. Washing By back- By scraping
COMPARISON OF RAPID AND
SLOW SAND FILTERS
s. No Rapid Sand Slow Sand
Filter Filter
6. Operation Highly skilled Less skilled
7. Loss of head 6 – 8 feet 4 feet
allowed
8. Removal of Good Good
turbidity
9. Removal of Good Fair
colour
10. Removal of 98-99 percent 99.9-99.99
bacteria percent
Chlorination
•water chlorination at a water treatment plant
were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany
• in 1897 the town of Maidstone, England
Water chlorination
Water chlorination is the process of
adding chlorine (Cl2)or hypochlorite to water.
This method is used to kill certain bacteria and
other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly
toxic. In particular, chlorination is used to
prevent the spread of waterborne
diseases suchas cholera, dysentery, typhoid
•
Water Chlorination
• More than 98% of U.S. supply systems use
chlorine-based disinfectants
• The effectiveness of all chemical treatment of
water is related to the temperature, PH level and
clarity of water
• Cloudy water often requires higher concentrations
of chemical to disinfect
• If the water temperature is below (4 degree
centigrade), double the treatment time before
drinking
• Contact time must increase under lower
temperature, or high PH (alkalinity)
Water Chlorination
• Supplement not a substitute to sand filtration
• For drinking water, doses varying from 1 to 4 ppm
are usually employed
• H2O + CL2 = HCL + HOCL
• Disinfecting action of chlorine mainly due to
hypochlorous acid
• PH of water = 6.5-8.5. Chlorine acts more rapidly in
acid water, its efficiency also increases as
temperature rises
• Not effective if PH of water above 7.2 or below 6.8
Principles of Chlorination
• Clarity of Water
Should be clear, free from turbidity
• Estimate chlorine demand of water
Amount of chlorine needed to destroy
bacteria & to oxidize all organic matter
present in water
BREAK POINT
• Contact period
• ½ to 1 hour to kill bacteria & viruses
Principles of Chlorination
• Minimum free residual chlorine:
• 0.3 - 0.5 mg/L or 0.5 ppm, provides a margin
of safety against subsequent microbial
contamination.
• 1 ppm & over taste troubles
• Correct dose of chlorine:
Chlorine demand of water +free residual
chlorine
Various forms of Chlorine
• Chlorine gas: chloronomes, chlorine gas
• Chlorine powder, Bleaching powder or WSP:
33% chlorine content + quick lime or calcium
oxide. Very unstable, chlorine lost due to
moisture, heat, light .1 teaspoonful = 5 gm of WSP
• Chlorine tablets: Puritabs or Halazone tablets
tablet of 5mg sufficient for 20 litres of water
• Chlorine Stock solution: 3 tablespoons of WSP + 1
liter of water. 3 drops of solution in 1 liter of water
• One scoopful of WSP when added to 100 gallons
of water, is equivalent to dose of 1 ppm of chlorine
Methods of Chlorination
• Simple Chlorination
• Chloramination
• Breakpoint Chlorination
• Super chlorination
Simple chlorination
• Chlorine gas or Bleaching powder
• Dose of WSP determined by Horrock’s
apparatus
• Chlorine gas regulated by chloronome
Chloramination
• Ammonia + chlorine ratio = 1:4 or 1:5
• Long action of 2 hours
• Germicidal action of 2 hours
• Germicidal power less than chlorine
• More stable, long acting
• No objectionable odour or taste
• Swimming pools
Breakpoint Chlorination
• Chlorine + natural ammonia = chloramines
• Destruction of chloramines
• Breakpoint: point at which free residual
chlorine is available for continuous
disinfection
BREAK POINT CHLORINATION
DESTRUCTION OF
FORMATION
OF CHLORAMINE
CHLORAMINE
BREAK
POINT
FREE
RESIDUAL
CHLORINE
Super chlorination
• Addition of excess chlorine than requirement
(H+1) (H= dose determined by Horrocks test
in scoopfuls + one extra scoop. One scoop =
2 gm or 1 ppm of chlorine in 100 gallons of
water
• Dechlorination: sulphur dioxide 1:1 or sodium
thiosulphate 1.8:1 (oxidising agents)
• Each one gm of sodium thiosulphate when
dissolved in water, will remove 1 ppm of
chlorine from 100 gallons or 455 liters of
water
Super chlorination
• Epidemics, heavily polluted waters
• Kills viruses, ova, cysts
• Super chlorination provides a chlorine residual
of 3-5 mg/L, 10 times the recommended
minimum breakpoint chlorine concentration
• Retention time: 5 minutes
• Activated carbon filtration removes the high
chlorine residual.
Tests For Free Chlorine
• Orthotolidine test: 0.1 ml orthotolidine reagent +
1 ml water. Yellow colour matched with
standard or colour discs. Reading in10 seconds
• Orthotolidine – Arsenite test: Modification of OT
test. Determines free and combined chlorine
residuals separately
• Starch Iodide test: 3 drops of cadmium iodide
and starch indicator solution + 5 ml H2O = blue
colour. Depth of colour increasing with the
amount of chlorine present. The colour test is
carried out at the end of 30 minutes. If a blue
colour is obtained, the water is fit to drink.
Ultraviolet Irradiation
• Uses light, UV rays, to kill microorganisms
(viruses, molds & other pathogens)
• used in individual or institutional systems
• Water should be free from turbidity or
suspended impurities
Ultraviolet Irradiation
• Advantages: exposure for shorter period, no
taste or odour produced, no harmful effects, no
requirement for addition of chemicals, no toxic
by-products
• Disadvantages: no residual effect, lack of rapid
field test for assessing treatment efficiency,
apparatus / maintenance expensive, does not
kill giardia, cysts, worms, cloudy or turbid
decreases effectiveness
Purification of Water on Large Scale
Storage
Sedimentation: Preliminary to filtration,
prevents rapid clogging of filters. Aluminium
sulphate (alum): 5-40 mg/L
Filtration:
Removal of 98-99% of bacteria + impurities
Slow sand or biological filters: fine sand
Rapid sand or mechanical filters: coarse sand
Disinfection:
Physical methods: boiling, UV radiation, solar
energy
Chemical methods: chlorination, ozonation
Purification of water on a small
scale or Emergency Disinfection
• Boiling: Rolling boil for 5-10 minutes, kills
bacteria, viruses, parasites like giardia &
cryptospordium
• Bleaching powder: 33% available chlorine,
dose determined by Horrock’s Test or 2-3
gm/1000 liter of clear water
• Chlorine stock solution :
• Add 3 tablespoons (33gms) of WSP to one
liter of water. Add 3 drops (0.6ml) of this
solution to one liter of water
Purification of water on a small scale
or Emergency Disinfection
• Chlorine tablets:
Halazone, Puritab,
one tablet in 1 / 5/ 20 liter of water.
• Iodine solution or tablets:
2 drops of 2% solution in 1 liter of water or one
tablet in one liter of water
• Filtration:
Portable Water Filters for Emergency Relief
Disinfection of Wells
• Find the volume of water in a well:
• Volume (liters)= 3.14 x d2x h x 1000/4
d = is diameter of well in meters
h = is depth of water in meters
• Find the amount of Bleaching Powder required
for disinfection by Horrock’s test
• Dissolve Bleaching powder in water bucket
• Deliver chlorine solution to water
• Contact period: one hour
• Test for residual chlorine (o.5 ppm)
• Wells best disinfected at night
HORROCK’S TEST
Horrock 1914
OBJECTIVE
The objective of horrock’s test is to
determine the quantity of water
sterilizing Powder (WSP) required to
sterilize a sample of water
HORROCKS TEST
• Contents of Horrocks Apparatus:
– Six white cups(200ml)
– One black cup
– One metal scoops (2gm)
– Seven glass sterilizing rods
– One Glass pipette
– Two droppers
– One Bottle Cadmium Iodide starch indicator
solution
– Copy of instructions
HORROCKS TEST
• Procedure:
– Prepare stock solution by taking one level of
scoopful of WSP in black cup
– Fill six white cups with water to be tested
– Add one drop of stock solution to first cup,
two drops in second cup, 3 drops to third cup
& so on
– Stir the water & wait for half an hour
HORROCKS TEST
• Procedure:
– Add 3 drops of starch iodide indicator
solution to each of white cups
– Development of blue colour indicates free
residual chlorine
– Dose for super chlorination: H+1
– One level of scoopful = 2 gm = 1 ppm
WSP required To Sterilize Water
No of scoops in the first cup with the
blue color / 450 Litres of water or
100 Gallons of water
USES
In Field
Camps
Semi permanent camps
When chloronomes are not working
?
