ARGUMENT AND CRITICAL THOUGHT
What is Argument?
In philosophy, an argument is a piece of reasoning for
the truth of a certain claim. Thus, one person can give
an argument for or against something.
The Process of Argument
An argument involves the process of…
establishing a claim and then
proving it with the use of
• logical reasoning,
• examples, and
• research.
1. A CLAIM is an expressed opinion or a conclusion that
the arguer wants to be accepted. The main claims are
called PROPOSITIONS or RESOLUTIONS.
2. Claims are supported by evidence. EVIDENCE consists
of facts or conditions that are objectively observable,
beliefs or statements generally accepted as true by the
recipients or conclusions previously established.
3. REASONING constructs a rational link between the
claim and evidence and authorizes the step we make
when we draw a conclusion.
4. Finally an argument attempts to influence the
listener with the help of the above
The example we are going to discuss now, you must have followed it in your
day-to-day life without thinking about the rules of argument.
Claims
'Mom, I really need a new cell phone!' If you've ever said this or something
like it, you've made a claim. Making a claim is just a fancy way of saying
that you're stating your main point. A claim tells what you think is true
about a topic based on your knowledge and your research. If you're ever
going to convince your Mom to get that new cell phone that's just perfect
for you, you're going to have move beyond mere opinions. You're going to
need to support your claim to get rid of that crummy, old, obsolete phone
that's holding you back.
Counterclaims
But there are two sides to every argument. In your argument for a new cell
phone, your Mom stands on the other side. She has something to say
against your claim that you need a new cell phone, and it goes something
like, 'No, you don't.'
That's your mom's counterclaim. A counterclaim is just the opposite of a
claim. In a more formal way, she might say, 'Your current situation does not
require a new cell phone.‘ When you're planning an argument, you need to
know what the counterclaim might be so that you can make sure that you
disprove it with your reasons and evidence.
Reasons
After your mom's counterclaim, it's time for the reasons you've prepared well
in advance, because you know exactly what she'll ask. 'My cell phone doesn't
have Internet access.'
That's a reason. A reason tells why. A reason makes someone care and tells
the importance of the claim and the argument. 'My cell phone doesn't have
Internet access,' would need to be beefed up a little, to, 'My current cell
phone doesn't provide Internet access, which is necessary for me to complete
all my homework.' That is probable, because your phone is so old that it
barely has texting!
Evidence
After giving your reason, it's time for your evidence, which, again, you have
thoughtfully and thoroughly prepared. You really want a new cell phone,
after all. Knowing that your mom could care less about the newest games,
appeal to what she thinks is important - your grades. 'My friends that have
Internet access are getting better marks and appreciation from the teacher.'
Argument Spheres
A SPHERE is a concept that guides how an argument is produced. There are
three types of sphere for an argument. These spheres are personal, public
and technical. Sphere is important in understanding how to produce and
receive arguments. Arguments need to be adopted to the specific sphere.
The first sphere being the PERSONAL SPHERE, contains relatively
informal arguments among people in typically casual settings.
The PUBLIC SPHERE contains arguments that are intended for public
or general audiences.
The TECHNICAL SPHERE of argument is specific to expertise,
the realm of specialized knowledge and language. In order to participate
in this field you must posses the proper knowledge and language in order
to actively have a part in the argument.
SPHERE-DEPENDENT ARGUMENT- while arguing all the topics are not
purely personal or public or technical. Some part of the argument may depend
on the other two e.g. if a topic is in the personal sphere, while providing the
reason and evidence we take the help of public sphere or technical sphere or
both together. This is what is called sphere-dependent argument.
In order to ORGANIZING YOUR ARGUMENT you need
to have
A Suitable Title
Appropriate Introduction with Thesis statement
A Body Paragraphs with
• Constructing Topic Sentences
• Building Main Points
• Countering the Opposition
And finally a Conclusion
WHY YOU NEED A TITLE
Title: introduces the topic of discussion to the audience and generates reader
interest in the argument. Keep in mind that while framing a title use active verbs.
For example:
If ‘Clean Campus’ is the topic then two suitable titles can be “Cleaning up Campus
With Recycling Bins” or “Reducing Rubbish: Recycling on Campus”
Imagine you just wrote a paper offering solutions to the problem of road rage.
Which would you consider to be the best title from the following and why?
Road Rage
Can’t Drive 55
Road Rage: Curing Our Highway Epidemic
The first title “Road Rage” provides little to entice the
reader, though it does introduce the topic.
The second title “Can’t Drive 55,” while it is offering an
interesting image, it would better fit a paper on the
speed limit than on road rage, which is defined by
more than speeding. Also, “Can’t Drive 55” is
unoriginal (a title from a popular Sammy Hagar song).
The third choice i.e. “Road Rage: Curing Our Highway
Epidemic” is the best selection here as it both
introduces the topic and provides an interesting
analogy to describe the seriousness of the problem.
WHAT IS INTRODUCTION?
Introduction: acquaints the reader with the topic and
purpose of the paper.
An introduction offers a plan for the ensuing argument that
is introduction, body and conclusion.
Introduction: Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
Body: Tell them.
Conclusion: Tell them what you told them
METHODS FOR CONSTRUCTING AN INTRODUCTION
Personal anecdote (real life stories or incidences)
Example - real or hypothetical examples
Question
Quotation
Shocking statistics
Striking image
WHAT IS A THESIS STATEMENT
It is the most important sentence in your paper and it lets the reader
know the main idea of the paper.
It also answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?”
It is not a factual statement, but a claim that has to be proven throughout
the paper
1. Above it the thesis statement should guide your reader through your
argument. And It is generally located in the introduction of the paper.
2. A thesis statement may also be located within the body of the paper or
in the conclusion, depending upon the purpose or argument of the
paper.
BODY PARAGRAPHS
Body paragraphs: build upon the claims made in the
introductory paragraph or paragraphs and are organized with
the use of topic sentences that illustrate the main idea of
each paragraph.
Things to be noted is that: Offering a brief explanation of the
history or recent developments of topic within the early body
paragraphs can help the audience become familiarized with
your topic and the complexity of the issue.
Paragraphs may be ordered in several ways, depending upon the
topic and purpose of your argument:
It may be ordered in either of the ways:
General - Specific
Most important - Least important
Weakest claim - Strongest claim
Things to ponder are
Researched material can aid you in proving the claims of your argument and
disproving oppositional claims.
Be sure to use your research to support the claims made in your topic
sentences—make your research work to prove your argument.
Consider your audience when you offer your counter argument.
Offer a counter argument after you have articulated your main claims.
CONCLUSION
Conclusion: Reemphasizes the main points made in
your paper.
You may choose to reiterate a call to action or
speculate on the future of your topic, when
appropriate. But avoid raising new claims in your
conclusion.
THANK YOU!
