Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course Module - 04

Welding of
Stainless Steels
 Contents

 Welding of Stainless Steels

 Welding of Cast Irons

 Welding dissimilar metals

What are stainless steels ?

 Steels containing 11 - 30% Chromium

 The chromium oxide forms a passive layer on
the surface which is adherent and
regenerative.
 This prevents corrosive attack and gives the
steel its “ stainless” property.
 Minimum 11% Cr needed to protect against
atmospheric corrosion.
 Elements like Ni, Mo, Cu, Nb, Ti etc added to
improve mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance
 Do not resist corrosion in strongly reducing
media.
Types of stainless steels

 Martensitic

 Ferritic

 Austenitic

 Duplex
(Austenite +Ferrite)
 Effect of chromium addition on phase diagram

Effect of Cr addition on A3 temp. Pseudo phase diagram for 0.1%C

steel
 Martensitic stainless steels

 Cr 12 –18%
C 0.1 – 1.2%
 AISI 410, 420, 440
grades
 Martensitic structure -
higher carbon grades
used in tempered
condition.
 Used for cutlery, surgical
instruments, steam, gas
& hydel turbine blades,
ball bearings and races.
 Ferritic stainless steels

 Cr 11 – 30%
C 0.02 – 0.2%
 AISI 405, 430, 446
grades
 Ferritic structure -higher
ductility and resistance
to SCC & pitting
corrosion.
 Used as thin sheet for
decorative applications,
oxidising corrosive
media, heat resisting
applications.
The Iron – Nickel phase diagram
 Austenitic stainless steels

 Cr 16 – 26%
Ni 6 – 26%
 AISI 304, 310, 316, 321 &
347 grades
 Austenitic structure gives
good weldability with
excellent ductility and
toughness down to
cryogenic temperatures.
 Nickel improves general
corrosion resistance
 Widely used for chemical,
petrochemical plant, food
processing and dairy
equipment. Also used for
cryogenic plant
 Welding of Martensitic Steels

Higher carbon grades used in

the quenched and tempered
condition
Problem of Hygrogen induced
cold cracking in HAZ.
Pre-heat and post-weld heat
treatment required if welded
with matching composition
martensitic SS electrodes.
Austenitic SS electrodes
generally used which avoids
cracking problems without pre
and post heating
Welding of Ferritic steels

 Softer and more ductile than martensite steels but

poorer formability than austenitic steels
 Formability improved by lowering level of
interstitial elements e.g. C & N to below 100 ppm.
Low interstitial ferrites.
 Ferrite phase does not transform to martensite
but susceptible to 475 deg embrittlement and
sigma phase formation in higher chromium grades
 Problem of grain growth during welding leading
to brittle structure in HAZ.
 Grains maybe refined only by cold work and re-
crystallization.
 Generally welded with austenitic SS electrodes or
TIG process with restricted heat input.
 Welding of Austenitic steels

 Generally good weldability

as there is no martensitic
transformation but
following problems
encountered
 Sensitization leading to
inter-granular corrosion -IGC
 Hot cracking
 Stress corrosion cracking -SCC
 Sigma phase formation
leading to embrittlement
 Higher distortion during
welding
 Sensitization and inter-granular
corrosion or ‘weld decay’
 Due to precipitation of chromium carbides at the grain
boundaries in temperature range of 650 – 800 C
 Areas adjacent to grain boundaries depleted of
chromium and become susceptible to corrosion.
 Encountered in the HAZ on both sides of weld
Steels to prevent IGC

 Standard grades
304 – 19Cr / 9Ni
316 – 18Cr / 12Ni / 2.5Mo – for pitting resistane
 Steels with low carbon
304L & 316L grades( 0.03% C max)
 Steels with elements having higher affinity for
carbon eg Ti , Nb – stabilised steels. Form carbides
in preference to Cr but have to be given stabilisation
treatment at 900 C.
321 grade – Ti stabilised
347 grade - Nb stabilised
 Hot cracking in austenitic
welds
 Hot cracking or solidification
cracking is caused due to low
melting eutectics formed at the
grain boundary.
 As the weld solidifies, in
combination with shrinkage
stresses, leads to cracks in fully
austenitic welds
 Promoted by S,P,Nb,Ti,N etc.
 Prevented by adjusting weld
metal composition to give 5 – 10
% ferrite phase in the deposit.
 Also prevented by reducing heat
input and controlling design
stress.
Schaeffler diagram
Physical properties of
austenitic stainless steels
 Has high coefficient of linear expansion,
twice that of carbon steels
 Has poor thermal conductivity, half that of
carbon steels
 Results in much higher distortion after
welding
 Steps to prevent distortion
- closer tacking
- greater use of jigs and fixtures
- use of balanced and skip welding
techniques
 Limitations of Standard Stainless
Steels

 Low proof stress – 35% of UTS

 Sensitive to stress corrosion in acidic Cl or F ion
media above 70 C and also hot caustic
 Sensitive to pitting corrosion in more aggressive acid
chloride media Preferential attack on the ferrite
phase in weak reducing media ( urea carbamate )
 Inadequate corrosion resistance in stronger reducing
media such as hot phosphoric acid or sulphuric acid

Steel makers have developed new grades of stainless steel to

overcome these limitations and meet the requirements of
higher operating pressures / temperatures or liquor
concentrations demanded by modern chemical and petro-
chemical plant
Duplex stainless steels

 Half the nickel content of

austenitic steels
 Cr 18 – 28%
Ni 4.5 – 9.0 %
 50% austenite + 50%
ferrite structure
 Almost twice the strength of
austenitic steels
 Excellent pitting + SCC
resistance
 Used for plant and piping in
oil and gas production,
corrosive applications to
resist chloride ion media.
Higher strength structurals.
 About Duplex Stainless Steels

Corrosion Resistance
 They are extremely corrosion resistant having high resistance to
intergranular corrosion. Even in chloride and sulphide environments,
they exhibit very high resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
 The super duplex grades are even more resistant to corrosion
Heat Resistance
 High chromium content gives protection against corrosion, but causes
embrittlement at temperatures over about 300°C.
 At low temperatures they have better ductility than ferritic and
martensitic grades. Duplex grades can readily be used down to at least
-50°C.
Heat Treatment
 They can not be hardened by heat treatment. Can however be work
hardened.
 Solution treatment or annealing can be done by rapid cooling after
heating to around 1100°C.
Composition Of Two Typical
Duplex Steels

Elements (%) 2205 UR52N+

(Super
Duplex)
C 0.03 Max 0.03 max
Mn 2.0 1.50
Si 1.0 0.80
S 0.03 0.035
P 0.02 0.02
Cr 21-23 24-26
Mo 2.5-3.5 3.0-5.0
Ni 4.5-6.5 5.5-8.00
N 0.08-0.2 0.2-0.35
Cu - 0.5-3.0
 Welding of Duplex steels

Weldability
 Duplex stainless steels have fairly good weldability.
 All standard welding processes can be used.
 Not quite as easily welded as the austenitic grades
but low thermal expansion in duplex grades reduces
distortion and residual stresses after welding.

Recommended filler material

 For 2205 stainless steel use E2209( 24 Cr- 12 Ni- 3
Mo/ELC/Nitrogen) eg ESAB 67.53 / 67.55 or
Smitweld Arosta 4462 electrodes
 Alternatively for higher alloyed steels of E329 type
use ESAB 68.53 / 68.55 or Smitweld Arosta 329
( 25Cr – 9Ni – 4Mo – 0.3N ) electrodes.
Steels for Urea service and strong
oxidising media
 In urea service there is preferential attack on the ferrite phase
by urea carbamate media which is mildly reducing.
 Generally 316L Urea grade Sandvik 3R60 or Assab 724L with
nil ferrite are used
 Welded with TIG or E316L ( standard ferrite) for root pass and
316L ( controlled ferrite 0.6% max ) for filler passes.
ESAB 316 KCR electrode. ( SNAMPROGETTI approved )
Alternatively a modified 316L electrode with 4 – 5% Mn gives
improved resistance to cracking

 For stronger oxidising conditions in modern fertiliser plant a

modified AISI 310 composition steels have developed eg.
Sandvik 2RE69 ( 25CR – 22Ni – 2 Mo – 0.1N )
Welded with Smitweld Jungo 4465 electrode or equivalent
 Steels For Strong Reducing Media And
Increased Pitting Resistance

 For service in strong reducing media

 eg. Sulphuric acid at intermediate concentrations and hot
phosphoric acid steels of the type 20Cr – 25 Ni – 4Mo – 2Cu have
been developed eg Sandvik 2RK65, HV9A, Uddenholm 904L and
Carpenter 20 Cb3
 Welded with Smitweld Jungo 4500, ESAB 69.33 electrodes
 Carpenter20 Cb3 welded with E320 electrodes

 Steels for increased pitting resistance Steels with higher

Molybdenum content have been developd eg. 317 and 317L
grades ( 3.5% Mo ) and Allegheny AL-6X which give exceptional
resistance to chloride ion pitting.
 Welded with matching electrodes with addition of 4% Mn or
0.2%N to stabilise austenite and prevent sigma phase formation
eg Smitweld Arosta 4462, 4439 electrodes
Welding of

Cast Irons
 Cast Irons

 Contain 2 – 4 % carbon 10 X that of steel with

1 -3 % silicon
 Grey Cast Irons- have graphite flakes in a
ferritic, pearlitic or ferritic-pearlitic matrix
 SG ( spheroidal graphite ) irons - also known as
Nodular Cast irons or ductile iron
 Heat-treated SG irons – Best strength and
toughness properties
 White Cast Irons ( reduced carbon & silicon )
carbon present as cementite – very hard
 Malleable irons – produced by heat-treatment
of white cast irons
 White and malleable irons not much used these
days
 Iron - cementite phase diagram

fcc
austenite

bcc
ferrite
 Grey Cast Irons

 The graphite flakes give

good damping and
machinability but poor
tensile properties
 Graphite flakes form
planes of weakness, as
such inherently brittle and
often cannot withstand
weld cooling stresses
 Weldability poor due to
formation of hard and
brittle cementite and Structure of Grey CI
martensite in the HAZ
 SG Cast Irons
 Graphite is spherodised by
addition of Magnesium or
Cerium during casting
 Available with pearlitic or
mixed ferrite matrix. Gives
greater strength and ductility
 Better weldability as less
likely to form martensite in
HAZ
 Annealing further improves
ductility by breaking down
cementite to give ferrite
matrix
 Austempering gives bainitic
matrix – major improvement Structure of Nodular CI
in strength & toughness.
Used in automobile crank
shafts and suspension arms
 Welding of Cast Irons

 Cast Irons generally welded only for repair or joining to

steel components
 Formation of hard and brittle structure in HAZ make
them prone to HAZ cracking during post-weld cooling.
 Pre-heating combined with slow cooling reduces risk of
HAZ cracking by producing softer structures
 Alternatively large castings, difficult to preheat, maybe
welded with very low heat input to minimise HAZ
formation and shrinkage stresses
 Generally welded with Nickel, Monel or Fe-Nickel filler
metal. The resulting austenitic weld metal is not
sensitive to carbon pick-up and deposits are soft and
ductile and yield preferentially to relieve shrinkage
stresses
 Low-hydrogen mild steel electrodes can also be used for
non-machinable fill repair welds or after buttering with
a nickel or monel electrode
 Welding processes and
procedure for Cast Irons
 Can be Oxy-acetylene gas welded
using matching cast iron rods with
high Silicon
 Can be Braze welded using copper
alloy filler metal
 MMAW, MIG or FCAW processes
can be used with nickel, monel or
Fe-nickel filler
 Always pre-heat parts slowly
and uniformly
 Butter faces to be welded if
possible
 Use low currents and short runs.
Peen the weld bead while still hot
to relieve shrinkage stresses Buttering of surfaces
 Cover and allow to cool slowly
unless using cold process
 Preheating temperatures for
Cast Irons
Cast Iron type MMA MIG Gas
Pre Heat Temp C
Ferritic Grey 300 300 600
Ferritic nodular RT-150 RT-150 600
Ferritic whiteheart RT RT 600
malleable
Pearlitic Grey 300-330 300-330 600
Pearlitic nodular 200-330 200-330 600
Pearlitic malleable 300-330 300-330 600
*200C if high C core involved
 Welding of
Dissimilar Materials
 Welding of dissimilar metals

 For certain dissimilar metal combinations it may

not be possible to make a fusion arc weld if the
melting points of the metals are very different
or the two metals are metallurgically
incompatible.
 For such applications i.e.. welding steel to
aluminium; either solid state processes or power
beam processes or brazing may be found
suitable
 However a large number of dissimilar metal
combinations maybe fusion welded using
suitable filler metal or bi-metallic inserts
 Processes for joining
dissimilar metals

Solid State Processes

 Diffusion bonding

 Explosion Welding

 Ultasonic welding

 Friction Welding

 Flash-butt resistance
welding
Diffusion welded Titanium to
aluminium
 Processes for joining
dissimilar metals

Power Beam processes

 Electron Beam Welding

 Laser Welding

Laser welded steel to aluminium

 Commonly Fusion welded
Dissimilar metal combinations

 Carbon steel to low alloy steels

 Carbon/low alloy steels to tool steels
 Carbon/low alloy steels to cast iron
 Carbon/low alloy steels to martensitic / ferritic
stainless steels
 Carbon/low alloy steels to austenitic stainless
steels including clad steels.
 Carbon/low alloy steels to nickel alloys
 Carbon/low alloy steels to copper alloys
 Weldability problems for
different material groups
 Carbon/ low alloy steels - Hydrogen induced cold
cracking in HAZ
 Tool steels/cast irons - Martensitic cracking in
weld/HAZ, low ductility
 Martensitic stainless steels – yrogen induced
cold cracking in HAZ
 Ferritic stainless steels – Grain growth and
sigma phase formation
 Austenitic stainless steels – hot cracking in weld,
sigma phase and distortion due to high
coefficient of expansion.
 Copper alloys - porosity
 General solutions for dissimilar
metal arc welding

 Carbon steel to low alloy steels – use low hydrogen E

7018 electrodes / MIG welding using preheat as
required for the low alloy steel.
 Cast iron to Carbon steel– E7018 electrodes or ENiFe-CI
electrodes. Cast Iron to stainless steel or 14% Mn steel
ENiFe-CI electrodes
 Carbon/low alloy/stainless steels to copper alloys
phosphor bronze ECuSn-A electrodes, brazing.
 All other combinations – austenitic stainless steels
electrodes/nickel alloy electrodes. Composition of filler
depending on material combination and application.
 For high temperature applications involving thermal
cycling eg in Power plant, it is important to provided a
transition between the two coefficients of expansion.
Use of high nickel Inconel electrodes is recommended.
 In highly stressed applications, buttering of the low
alloy steel side with a stainless steel electrode before
welding is recommended
 Use of Schaeffler diagram for
selection of electrode
 The two austenitic stainless steel
electrodes commonly used for mixed
welding applications are E309 (L) or
E312 type electrodes
 Choice is made so that the final weld
composition after dilution from both
metals falls in an area which avoids the
3 zones of martensitic cold cracking,
fully austenitic hot cracking and brittle
sigma phase at high chromium levels
 Welding dissimilar steels

 Encountered in transition
joints between mild / low
alloy steels and stainless
steels or welding of clad
steels
 Problems of martensitic cold
cracking on MS side, hot
cracking in weld.
Differential thermal
expansion.
 Use E309 or E312 electrode
or consult Schaeffler
diagram
 Where thermal cycling is
encountered e.g. power
plant use Inconel electrode.
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