Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques
Chapter 3
May 2, 2012
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and OLAP Technology: An Overview
What is a data warehouse? A multi-dimensional data model
Data warehouse architecture
Data warehouse implementation
From data warehousing to data mining
May 2, 2012
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
What is Data Warehouse?
Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
A decision support database that is maintained separately from the organizations operational database Support information processing by providing a solid platform of consolidated, historical data for analysis.
A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and nonvolatile collection of data in support of managements decision-making process.W. H. Inmon Data warehousing:
The process of constructing and using data warehouses
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Data WarehouseSubject-Oriented
Organized around major subjects, such as customer,
product, sales
Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction processing Provide a simple and concise view around particular subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in the decision support process
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Data WarehouseIntegrated
Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data sources relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction records Data cleaning and data integration techniques are applied. Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding structures, attribute measures, etc. among different data sources
E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
When data is moved to the warehouse, it is converted.
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Data WarehouseTime Variant
The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly longer than that of operational systems
Operational database: current value data Data warehouse data: provide information from a historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years) Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
Every key structure in the data warehouse
But the key of operational data may or may not contain time element
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Data WarehouseNonvolatile
A physically separate store of data transformed from the
operational environment
Operational update of data does not occur in the data warehouse environment
Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms Requires only two operations in data accessing:
initial loading of data and access of data
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Data Warehouse vs. Heterogeneous DBMS
Traditional heterogeneous DB integration: A query driven approach
Build wrappers/mediators on top of heterogeneous databases When a query is posed to a client site, a meta-dictionary is used to translate the query into queries appropriate for individual
heterogeneous sites involved, and the results are integrated into
a global answer set
Complex information filtering
Data warehouse: update-driven, high performance
Information from heterogeneous sources is integrated in advance and stored in warehouses for direct query and analysis
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Data Warehouse vs. Operational DBMS
OLTP (on-line transaction processing)
Major task of traditional relational DBMS Day-to-day operations: purchasing, inventory, banking, manufacturing, payroll, registration, accounting, etc. Major task of data warehouse system Data analysis and decision making User and system orientation: customer vs. market Data contents: current, detailed vs. historical, consolidated Database design: ER + application vs. star + subject View: current, local vs. evolutionary, integrated Access patterns: update vs. read-only but complex queries
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9
OLAP (on-line analytical processing)
Distinct features (OLTP vs. OLAP):
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OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP users function DB design data clerk, IT professional day to day operations application-oriented current, up-to-date detailed, flat relational isolated repetitive read/write index/hash on prim. key short, simple transaction tens thousands 100MB-GB transaction throughput OLAP knowledge worker decision support subject-oriented historical, summarized, multidimensional integrated, consolidated ad-hoc lots of scans complex query millions hundreds 100GB-TB query throughput, response
usage access unit of work # records accessed #users DB size metric
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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Why Separate Data Warehouse?
High performance for both systems
DBMS tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency control, recovery Warehousetuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries, multidimensional view, consolidation missing data: Decision support requires historical data which operational DBs do not typically maintain data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation, summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
Different functions and different data:
Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP analysis directly on relational databases
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Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and OLAP Technology: An Overview
What is a data warehouse? A multi-dimensional data model
Data warehouse architecture
Data warehouse implementation
From data warehousing to data mining
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
12
From Tables and Spreadsheets to Data Cubes
A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model which views data in the form of a data cube A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in multiple dimensions
Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys to each of the related dimension tables
In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids forms a data cube.
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids
all time item location supplier 0-D(apex) cuboid
1-D cuboids
time,location time,item
item,location item,supplier
location,supplier
time,supplier
2-D cuboids
time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier
item,location,supplier
4-D(base) cuboid
time, item, location, supplier
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Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses
Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures
Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape similar to snowflake
Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars, therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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Example of Star Schema
time
time_key day day_of_the_week month quarter year
item
Sales Fact Table time_key item_key branch_key
item_key item_name brand type supplier_type
branch
branch_key branch_name branch_type
location
location_key street city state_or_province country
location_key units_sold
dollars_sold
avg_sales
Measures
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Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key day day_of_the_week month quarter year
item
Sales Fact Table
item_key item_name brand type supplier_key
supplier
supplier_key supplier_type
time_key
item_key branch_key
branch
branch_key branch_name branch_type
location
location_key street city_key
location_key
units_sold dollars_sold avg_sales Measures
city
city_key city state_or_province country
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key day day_of_the_week month quarter year
item
Sales Fact Table time_key item_key branch_key
item_key item_name brand type supplier_type
Shipping Fact Table time_key
item_key
shipper_key
from_location
location
location_key street city province_or_state country
branch
branch_key branch_name branch_type
location_key units_sold dollars_sold avg_sales Measures
to_location dollars_cost units_shipped shipper
shipper_key shipper_name location_key shipper_type 18
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Cube Definition Syntax in DMQL
Cube Definition (Fact Table) define cube <cube_name> [<dimension_list>]: <measure_list> Dimension Definition (Dimension Table) define dimension <dimension_name> as (<attribute_or_subdimension_list>) Special Case (Shared Dimension Tables) First time as cube definition define dimension <dimension_name> as <dimension_name_first_time> in cube <cube_name_first_time>
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Defining Star Schema in DMQL
define cube sales_star [time, item, branch, location]: dollars_sold = sum(sales_in_dollars), avg_sales = avg(sales_in_dollars), units_sold = count(*) define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week, month, quarter, year) define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand, type, supplier_type) define dimension branch as (branch_key, branch_name, branch_type) define dimension location as (location_key, street, city, province_or_state, country)
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Defining Snowflake Schema in DMQL
define cube sales_snowflake [time, item, branch, location]:
dollars_sold = sum(sales_in_dollars), avg_sales = avg(sales_in_dollars), units_sold = count(*)
define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week, month, quarter, year)
define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand, type, supplier(supplier_key, supplier_type))
define dimension branch as (branch_key, branch_name, branch_type) define dimension location as (location_key, street, city(city_key, province_or_state, country))
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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Defining Fact Constellation in DMQL
define cube sales [time, item, branch, location]: dollars_sold = sum(sales_in_dollars), avg_sales = avg(sales_in_dollars), units_sold = count(*) define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week, month, quarter, year) define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand, type, supplier_type) define dimension branch as (branch_key, branch_name, branch_type) define dimension location as (location_key, street, city, province_or_state, country) define cube shipping [time, item, shipper, from_location, to_location]: dollar_cost = sum(cost_in_dollars), unit_shipped = count(*) define dimension time as time in cube sales define dimension item as item in cube sales define dimension shipper as (shipper_key, shipper_name, location as location in cube sales, shipper_type) define dimension from_location as location in cube sales define dimension to_location as location in cube sales
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Measures of Data Cube: Three Categories
Distributive: if the result derived by applying the function to n aggregate values is the same as that derived by applying the function on all the data without partitioning
E.g., count(), sum(), min(), max()
Algebraic: if it can be computed by an algebraic function with M arguments (where M is a bounded integer), each of which is obtained by applying a distributive aggregate function
E.g., avg(), min_N(), standard_deviation()
Holistic: if there is no constant bound on the storage size needed to describe a subaggregate.
E.g., median(), mode(), rank()
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A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (location)
all region Europe all ... North_America
country
Germany
...
Spain
Canada
...
Mexico
city office
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Frankfurt
...
Vancouver ... L. Chan ...
Toronto
M. Wind
24
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Multidimensional Data
Sales volume as a function of product, month, and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time Hierarchical summarization paths Industry Region Year
Category Country Quarter
Product
Product
City Office
Month Week Day
Month
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A Sample Data Cube
1Qtr 2Qtr
Date
3Qtr 4Qtr
Canada Mexico
sum
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Country
TV PC VCR sum
sum
Total annual sales of TV in U.S.A.
U.S.A
26
Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube
all 0-D(apex) cuboid
product
date
product,country
country
date, country
1-D cuboids
product,date
2-D cuboids 3-D(base) cuboid
product, date, country
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
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Browsing a Data Cube
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Visualization OLAP capabilities Interactive manipulation
28
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Typical OLAP Operations
Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
from higher level summary to lower level summary or detailed data, or introducing new dimensions Slice and dice: project and select
Pivot (rotate):
reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
Other operations
drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its back-end relational tables (using SQL)
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Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP Operations
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30
A Star-Net Query Model
Shipping Method Customer Orders Customer
CONTRACTS
AIR-EXPRESS TRUCK ORDER PRODUCT LINE
Time
ANNUALY QTRLY CITY SALES PERSON COUNTRY DAILY
Product
PRODUCT ITEM PRODUCT GROUP
DISTRICT
REGION Location
May 2, 2012
Each circle is called a footprint
DIVISION Promotion Organization
31
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and OLAP Technology: An Overview
What is a data warehouse? A multi-dimensional data model
Data warehouse architecture
Data warehouse implementation
From data warehousing to data mining
May 2, 2012
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
32
Design of Data Warehouse: A Business Analysis Framework
Four views regarding the design of a data warehouse
Top-down view
allows selection of the relevant information necessary for the data warehouse exposes the information being captured, stored, and managed by operational systems consists of fact tables and dimension tables sees the perspectives of data in the warehouse from the view of end-user
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33
Data source view
Data warehouse view
Business query view
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Data Warehouse Design Process
Top-down, bottom-up approaches or a combination of both
Top-down: Starts with overall design and planning (mature) Bottom-up: Starts with experiments and prototypes (rapid) Waterfall: structured and systematic analysis at each step before proceeding to the next Spiral: rapid generation of increasingly functional systems, short turn around time, quick turn around
From software engineering point of view
Typical data warehouse design process
Choose a business process to model, e.g., orders, invoices, etc.
Choose the grain (atomic level of data) of the business process Choose the dimensions that will apply to each fact table record Choose the measure that will populate each fact table record
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Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture
Monitor & Integrator OLAP Server
Other sources Operational DBs
Metadata
Extract Transform Load Refresh
Data Warehouse
Serve
Analysis Query Reports Data mining
Data Marts
Data Sources
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Data Storage
OLAP Engine Front-End Tools
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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Three Data Warehouse Models
Enterprise warehouse collects all of the information about subjects spanning the entire organization Data Mart a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to specific, selected groups, such as marketing data mart
Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
Virtual warehouse A set of views over operational databases Only some of the possible summary views may be materialized
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May 2, 2012
Data Warehouse Development: A Recommended Approach
Distributed Data Marts Multi-Tier Data Warehouse
Data Mart
Data Mart
Enterprise Data Warehouse
Model refinement
Model refinement
Define a high-level corporate data model
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Data Warehouse Back-End Tools and Utilities
Data extraction get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external sources Data cleaning detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible Data transformation convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse format Load sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check integrity, and build indicies and partitions Refresh propagate the updates from the data sources to the warehouse
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Metadata Repository
Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores: Description of the structure of the data warehouse
schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data mart locations and contents data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path), currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring information (warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
Operational meta-data
The algorithms used for summarization The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse Data related to system performance warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions Business data
business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies
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May 2, 2012
OLAP Server Architectures
Relational OLAP (ROLAP)
Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and manage warehouse data and OLAP middle ware Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of aggregation navigation logic, and additional tools and services Greater scalability Sparse array-based multidimensional storage engine Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array Specialized support for SQL queries over star/snowflake schemas
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40
Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)
Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft SQLServer)
Specialized SQL servers (e.g., Redbricks)
May 2, 2012
Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and OLAP Technology: An Overview
What is a data warehouse? A multi-dimensional data model
Data warehouse architecture
Data warehouse implementation
From data warehousing to data mining
May 2, 2012
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
41
Efficient Data Cube Computation
Data cube can be viewed as a lattice of cuboids
The bottom-most cuboid is the base cuboid
The top-most cuboid (apex) contains only one cell How many cuboids in an n-dimensional cube with L n levels?
T ( Li 1) i 1
Materialization of data cube
Materialize every (cuboid) (full materialization), none (no materialization), or some (partial materialization) Selection of which cuboids to materialize
Based on size, sharing, access frequency, etc.
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Cube Operation
Cube definition and computation in DMQL define cube sales[item, city, year]: sum(sales_in_dollars) compute cube sales Transform it into a SQL-like language (with a new operator cube by, introduced by Gray et al.96) ()
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES
(city)
(item)
(year)
CUBE BY item, city, year Need compute the following Group-Bys
(date, product, customer), (date,product),(date, customer), (product, customer), (city, item, year) (date), (product), (customer) ()
May 2, 2012 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
(city, item)
(city, year)
(item, year)
43
Iceberg Cube
Computing only the cuboid cells whose count or other aggregates satisfying the condition like HAVING COUNT(*) >= minsup Motivation Only a small portion of cube cells may be above the water in a sparse cube Only calculate interesting cellsdata above certain threshold Avoid explosive growth of the cube
Suppose 100 dimensions, only 1 base cell. How many aggregate cells if count >= 1? What about count >= 2?
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Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index
Index on a particular column Each value in the column has a bit vector: bit-op is fast The length of the bit vector: # of records in the base table The i-th bit is set if the i-th row of the base table has the value for the indexed column not suitable for high cardinality domains
Base table
Cust C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Region Asia Europe Asia America Europe
Index on Region
Index on Type
Type RecIDAsia Europe America RecID Retail Dealer Retail 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 Dealer 2 2 0 1 0 1 0 Dealer 3 1 0 0 3 0 1 Retail 4 0 0 1 4 1 0 0 1 0 5 0 1 Dealer 5
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Indexing OLAP Data: Join Indices
Join index: JI(R-id, S-id) where R (R-id, ) S (S-id, ) Traditional indices map the values to a list of record ids It materializes relational join in JI file and speeds up relational join In data warehouses, join index relates the values of the dimensions of a start schema to rows in the fact table. E.g. fact table: Sales and two dimensions city and product A join index on city maintains for each distinct city a list of R-IDs of the tuples recording the Sales in the city Join indices can span multiple dimensions
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Efficient Processing OLAP Queries
Determine which operations should be performed on the available cuboids
Transform drill, roll, etc. into corresponding SQL and/or OLAP operations, e.g., dice = selection + projection
Determine which materialized cuboid(s) should be selected for OLAP op.
Let the query to be processed be on {brand, province_or_state} with the
condition year = 2004, and there are 4 materialized cuboids available:
1) {year, item_name, city} 2) {year, brand, country} 3) {year, brand, province_or_state} 4) {item_name, province_or_state} where year = 2004 Which should be selected to process the query?
Explore indexing structures and compressed vs. dense array structs in MOLAP
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47
May 2, 2012
Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and OLAP Technology: An Overview
What is a data warehouse? A multi-dimensional data model
Data warehouse architecture
Data warehouse implementation
From data warehousing to data mining
May 2, 2012
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
48
Data Warehouse Usage
Three kinds of data warehouse applications
Information processing
supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
Analytical processing
multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting knowledge discovery from hidden patterns supports associations, constructing analytical models, performing classification and prediction, and presenting the mining results using visualization tools
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 49
Data mining
May 2, 2012
From On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) to On Line Analytical Mining (OLAM)
Why online analytical mining? High quality of data in data warehouses DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data Available information processing structure surrounding data warehouses ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities, reporting and OLAP tools OLAP-based exploratory data analysis Mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc. On-line selection of data mining functions Integration and swapping of multiple mining functions, algorithms, and tasks
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An OLAM System Architecture
Mining query User GUI API Mining result Layer4 User Interface
OLAM Engine
Data Cube API
OLAP Engine
Layer3
OLAP/OLAM
Layer2
MDDB
Meta Data
Filtering&Integration
MDDB
Database API
Data cleaning
Filtering
Layer1 Databases
May 2, 2012
Data Data integration Warehouse
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Data Repository
51
Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and OLAP Technology: An Overview
What is a data warehouse? A multi-dimensional data model Data warehouse architecture Data warehouse implementation From data warehousing to data mining Summary
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May 2, 2012
Summary: Data Warehouse and OLAP Technology
Why data warehousing? A multi-dimensional model of a data warehouse
Star schema, snowflake schema, fact constellations A data cube consists of dimensions & measures
OLAP operations: drilling, rolling, slicing, dicing and pivoting
Data warehouse architecture
OLAP servers: ROLAP, MOLAP, HOLAP Efficient computation of data cubes
Partial vs. full vs. no materialization Indexing OALP data: Bitmap index and join index OLAP query processing
From OLAP to OLAM (on-line analytical mining)
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References (I)
S. Agarwal, R. Agrawal, P. M. Deshpande, A. Gupta, J. F. Naughton, R. Ramakrishnan, and S. Sarawagi. On the computation of multidimensional aggregates. VLDB96
D. Agrawal, A. E. Abbadi, A. Singh, and T. Yurek. Efficient view maintenance in data warehouses. SIGMOD97
R. Agrawal, A. Gupta, and S. Sarawagi. Modeling multidimensional databases. ICDE97 S. Chaudhuri and U. Dayal. An overview of data warehousing and OLAP technology. ACM SIGMOD Record, 26:65-74, 1997
E. F. Codd, S. B. Codd, and C. T. Salley. Beyond decision support. Computer World, 27, July 1993. J. Gray, et al. Data cube: A relational aggregation operator generalizing group-by, cross-tab and sub-totals. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 1:29-54, 1997.
A. Gupta and I. S. Mumick. Materialized Views: Techniques, Implementations, and Applications. MIT Press, 1999. J. Han. Towards on-line analytical mining in large databases. ACM SIGMOD Record, 27:97-107, 1998. V. Harinarayan, A. Rajaraman, and J. D. Ullman. Implementing data cubes efficiently. SIGMOD96
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References (II)
C. Imhoff, N. Galemmo, and J. G. Geiger. Mastering Data Warehouse Design: Relational and Dimensional Techniques. John Wiley, 2003
W. H. Inmon. Building the Data Warehouse. John Wiley, 1996
R. Kimball and M. Ross. The Data Warehouse Toolkit: The Complete Guide to Dimensional Modeling. 2ed. John Wiley, 2002 P. O'Neil and D. Quass. Improved query performance with variant indexes. SIGMOD'97 Microsoft. OLEDB for OLAP programmer's reference version 1.0. In [Link] 1998 A. Shoshani. OLAP and statistical databases: Similarities and differences. PODS00. S. Sarawagi and M. Stonebraker. Efficient organization of large multidimensional arrays. ICDE'94 OLAP council. MDAPI specification version 2.0. In [Link] 1998 E. Thomsen. OLAP Solutions: Building Multidimensional Information Systems. John Wiley, 1997 P. Valduriez. Join indices. ACM Trans. Database Systems, 12:218-246, 1987. J. Widom. Research problems in data warehousing. CIKM95.
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