Data Communications & Computer Networks

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BY Basha K | Faculty of Computing and Software Engineering |AMIT
CS Exit Exam Blueprint for Data Communication
IT Exit Exam Blueprint for Data Communication
SE Exit Exam Blueprint for Fundamental of Networking
 PART I
Basics of Data Communications
OBJECTIVES:

 Understand the concepts and principles of data communications

 Understand Data transmission and Transmissions medias
Overview Data Communications
• When we communicate, we are sharing information.
• This sharing can be local or remote between individuals, local
communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.
• Telecommunication
• For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of
a communication system made up of a combination of hardware and software
• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics:
• Delivery,
• Accuracy
• Timeliness and
• Jitter---QOS
 What is Data Communications?
• Is the process of transferring digital information between two or
more points.
• In Data Communications, data generally are defined as information that is
stored in digital form
• Data communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and
processing of digital information
• A data communications system has five components:
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission medium
• Protocol
Cont…
• Information today comes in different forms such as
• Text
• Numbers
• Images
• Audio and
• Video
• All of these data type has their own representation and coding
system in the computer systems.
 What is a computer network?
• A computer network comprises
….two or more computers that are connected
…either by cables (wired) or WiFi (wireless)
…with the purpose of transmitting, exchanging, or sharing data and resources
• Refers to
…a group of two or more computing devices
… that are connected by a communication medium
…allowing the computers to communicate
electronically
 Data Transmission
 It is sending of binary data from source to destination as bit by
bit or grouping bits together, if so, how?
 Ans:

 The transmission of binary data across a link (communication

channel) can be either parallel or serial mode.
 This means?

 Parallel mode multiple bits are sent together each clock, where
as in serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
Types/ways of Data Transmission

 Example: telephone wires

e.g.  e.g. phone call.

mailbox.
SIGNALS
 Signals…
 In a communication system, data are propagated from
one point to another by means of electromagnetic
signals.
 Now we consider the signal generated by the transmitter.
o Propagated over a variety of media: wire, fiber optic, space

 Two type of signals

 Digital and
 Analog
1. Digital Signals
 A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time
 Used to represent digital data

 Advantages of Digital Signals

• Less vulnerable to noise

 2. Analog Signals

Analog signal is the simplest sort of signal is a in which

the same signal pattern repeats over time and
Used to represent analog data
• For example, when you speak into a microphone, the sound
waves are converted into analog electrical signals that can be
transmitted or processed.
 Cont’d

 Can use analog signal to carry digital data ?

 By using?

 Modem: modulator/demodulator converts a series of binary voltage pulses

into an analog signal by encoding the digital data onto a carrier frequency.

 Can use digital signal to carry analog data?

 Codec (coder-decoder): it takes an analog signal that directly

represents the voice data and approximates that signal by a bit

stream.
MODEM

CODEC
I. Digital Data Transmission
1. Digital data
• Produced by computers, in binary form, represented as a series

of ones and zeros

2. Digital transmissions
• Made of square waves with a clear beginning and ending

• Computer networks send digital data using digital transmissions.

II. Analog Data Transmission
1. Analog data
• Produced by telephones
• Sound waves, which vary continuously over time
• Can take on any value in a wide range of possibilities

2. Analog transmissions
• Analog data transmitted in analog form (vary continuously)
• Examples of analog data being sent using analog transmissions are
broadcast TV and radio
DATA TRANSMISSION MODE
Data Transmission Mode
• It is also called Communication Mode.
1. Simplex transmission
• Signals are transmitted in only one(unidirectional) direction e.g. Television

2. Half duplex
• Signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one way at a time. e.g.
police radio

3. Full duplex
• Both stations may transmit simultaneously. e.g. telephone
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
Transmission Impairments and their solution…
• Consequences over two types of signals we have:

o For analog signals: degradation of signal quality (if distance

increases)

o For digital signals: bit errors

• The most significant causes for transmission impairments include

a. Attenuation
b. Distortion

c. Noise
 Transmission Impairments and their solution…
1. Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.
• It is commonly observed in wired communication systems, where
the signal strength decreases with increasing cable length.
• Attenuation can also occur in wireless communication due to
obstacles, such as buildings or environmental factors like
atmospheric conditions.
Transmission Impairments and their solution…

2. Distortion

• Means that the signal changes its form or shape distortion

occurs in composite signals
 Transmission Impairments and their solution…

3. Noise:.

• Refers to any unwanted interference that disrupts the original

signal.

• It can be caused by external factors such as electromagnetic

interference (EMI) from other electronic devices, radio frequency

interference (RFI), or internal factors like thermal noise within the

communication system components.

MULTIPLEXERS
 Multiplexing/Demultiplexing

♣ Allows multiple signals to travel simultaneously over one medium

♣ Multiplexing is used for most effective use of the available channel

capacity (bandwidth utilization) for reducing bandwidth wastage.

• Multiplexer (mux) is a device that combines several signals into

a single signal.
• Demultiplexer (demux) separates the combined signals and

regenerates them in original form

Types of Multiplexing
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Transmission Media
• Is physical pathways through which signals are transmitted from a
sender to a receiver in a communication system.

General factors used in Media Selection

• Type of network they used
• Cost of implementation
• Transmission distance they can transmit with loss of signal strength
• Security they have
• Error rates they have
• Transmission speed and bandwidth
• Tolerance of interfaces
Types of transmission of medias/channels
 Guided Media: communication follows an exact path
 Unguided Media: communication follows no specific path.
 1. Guided Transmission Media
1. Twisted Pair (TP) Wires
• Shielded twisted pair

• Unshielded twisted pair

But what is the advantage of twisting wires?

• Used for telephones and LANs

TP cables have a number of pairs of wires

Telephone lines: two pairs (4 wires used by the telephone)

LAN cables: 4 pairs (8 wires)

TP cables are least-expensive and most commonly-used transmission

medium.
 TYPES TP
Unshielded and Shielded TP

 Is commonly used for computer networks such as a building, that is, for local

area networks (LANs).

 Connect using RJ-45 connectors.

 Data rates for LANs using twisted pair today range from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbs

Ordinary telephone wire {RJ-11 connector)

Insula Me
tor tal
2. Coaxial cable
Similar to cable TV wire

Used for cable television, LANs, telephony

One wire runs through cable

Types of coaxial cables

Thinnet: -refers to RJ-58 cabling Thicknet : - refers RJ-8 cabling

 About ¼ inch thick
 Connected to workstation NIC using  About ½ inch thick
British Naval Connecter (BNC) port  Used for long distance
connecter
communication
 Used for short distance
 Max length of thicknet is 500
communication
 Max length of thinnet is 185 meters
meters
3. Fiber Optic Cable
A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass fibers

inside an insulated casing.

Fibers designed for
• long-distance data transmission,
• high-performance data networking, telecommunications.
• Provides higher bandwidth and

plastic jacket glass or plastic

cladding fiber core
2. Wireless Media/unguided Transmission Media
• Does not use a conductor or wire as a communication channel.

• Instead it uses the air or vacuum as medium to carry information

• Data transmitted through the air

• LANs use radio waves

• WANs use microwave signals

• Easy to setup

• Difficult to secure
Characteristics of Radio waves transmission
Cont’d
 Long distance wavelength

 But Short frequency

 Frequency ranges 300Hz -300GHz (ranges 3KHz-5GHz)

 These waves are Omni directional.

 Includes AM and FM radios, cellular phones, wireless LANs
(IEEE 802.11) and Bluetooth
 Cont’d
Characteristics of Microwaves waves transmission
 Microwaves have higher frequencies than radio waves.

 They are used for point-to-point communication in microwave

links and satellite communication

 Cont’d
Characteristics of Infrared waves transmission

Infrared Waves are the electromagnetic waves which have frequency range

between 300 GHz to 400 GHz.

These cannot travel along long distances.

Used for short range communication.

They also use line-of-sight of propagation.

Cannot pass through solid objects like walls.

These also not penetrate through walls.

The most common application of the IR waves is remote controls that are used

for TV, DVD players and stereo system.

 PART 2
Computer Network Type and
Topologies
OBJECTIVES:

 Recognize network Topologies and Type

 Understand network components
What is Computer Network ?
 It is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers,

servers, printers, routers, switches, and other hardware, that are

linked together to enable communication and data sharing.
 These devices are connected by various transmission media, such

as wired or wireless connections.

Types of computer network
Computer networks can be categorized based on:

• I. Based on geographical coverage as:

1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN covers a small geographical area, such as a home, office

building, or campus. It typically consists of interconnected devices within a limited space.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN covers a larger area than a LAN, typically spanning a

city or metropolitan region. It connects multiple LANs together.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN spans a large geographical area, often connecting multiple cities

or even countries. The internet is a prime example of a WAN.

4. PAN: PAN stands for Personal Area Network.

• It is a type of computer network that covers a very small area, typically within the immediate proximity of an

individual person.

• PANs are designed for personal use and are often centered around an individual's personal devices.
Types of computer network
Computer networks can be categorized based on:
• II. Based on Network Architecture, security and access as:

1. Client-Server Network: In a client-server network,

there are dedicated servers that provide services

or resources to client devices.
• Clients request services, and servers respond to those requests.

2. Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P): In a peer-to-peer network,

devices, or peers, share resources directly with each other

without the need for a central server.

• Each device can act as both a client and a server
 Internetwork
• A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet.

• An internetwork is formed when multiple networks are interconnected to enable

communication and data exchange across different networks.

• It allows devices on one network to communicate with devices on other networks, creating a

vast global network of networks.

• Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol.

• Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4.

• Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

• It uses WWW
 Internetwork…
• Internet uses very high-speed backbone of

fiber optics.
• To inter-connect various continents, fibers

are laid under sea known to us as

submarine (subsea) communication cable.
• Internet is widely deployed on World Wide

Web services using HTML linked pages and

is accessible by client software known as
Web Browsers
Internetwork…
Ethiopia in which country directions they connect to submarine
undersea cables
• Ethiopia, being a landlocked country, does not directly connect to submarine

undersea cables as it does not have direct access to the coast.

• However, Ethiopia has established connections to international submarine

undersea cables through neighboring countries that have coastal access.

• Here are some examples:

• Djibouti

• Sudan
WHAT IS NETWORK TOPOLOGY?
What is Network Topology?
 Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to

each other.
 Refers to the manner in which the links and nodes of a network are arranged to relate to each

other.
 it is a diagram helps visualize the communicating devices, which are modeled as nodes, and the

connections between the devices

 There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
 DataComm BY Basha K, 2022 Data Commuinication Lecture 3 60

Type Star topology

Bus topology • all nodes are connected to a
• is when every network node is single, central hub
directly connected to a main
cable.

Ring topology
Mesh topology
• nodes are connected in a loop, so
• is defined by overlapping
each device has exactly two connections between nodes
neighbors.
Network component
• Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well

as the software required for installing computer networks, both at

organizations and at home.
• The hardware components are the server, client, peer, transmission

medium, and connecting devices (router, switch, access point, hub,

gateway, repeater).
• The software components are network operating system and

protocols(OSI or TCP/IP suit)

 Network component…
• Here are some common network components:

1. Network Devices:
 Switches.

 Routers.

 Firewalls

 Wireless Access Points (WAPs

2 Network Cabling:
Ethernet Cables.
Fiber Optic Cables.
 PART 3
COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK PROTOCOLS
&
LAYERED MODELS
OBJECTIVES:

 Identify and understand TCP/IP and OSI Reference Model

 Understand network protocols and functions
 Design and implement IP addressing and Subnets
NETWORK LAYERING
Why TCP/IP and OSI model
Modularity

Easier troubleshooting

Enhance functionality
Layering standards

1. International Standardization Organization (OSI)

2. Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Commonly used networking models, such as the TCP/IP model, divide

network functionality into different layers.

OSI reference model TCP/IP
Application
Presentatio Application
n

Session

Transport Transport

Network internet

Data link Network

access
Physical
OSI Model
 What is OSI reference model?
 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a
conceptual framework that standardizes and defines how different
network protocols and technologies should interact and communicate
with each other.
 It consists of seven layers
 However, it is important to note that the OSI model is a reference
model and not an actual implementation.
 Real-world network architectures, such as the Internet, often use
modified or simplified versions of the OSI model, such as the TCP/IP
model
How data travel across these 7 layers

data Application data

7 7
Presentation
6 6
5 Session 5
Transport
Segment 4 4 Segment

3 Network
packet 3 packe
t
Data link
frame 2 2 frame

bits Physical
1 1 bits
Encapsulation

 Encapsulation:
o Is the process of adding protocol-specific headers and
trailers to the data as it moves down through the layers of the
OSI model.
 Decapsulation:
o Is the reverse process of encapsulation. It occurs as data
moves up through the layers of the OSI model at the receiving
end.
 Encapsulation
Data=>Segment=>Packet=>frame=>bits

De-encapsulation
Bits->frame->packet->segment->data
General structure of packet or frame
sequence
7 Layers of OSI

73
Layer 1: Physical Layer
It define physical characteristics of network such as wires, connector,
voltages, data rates, Asynchronous, Synchronous Transmission
Where is the position of physical layer at OSI?

What did you understood from figure 4 and 5?

 General Responsibility of this layer are:

o Bit signal transmission
o Bit synchronization
o Bit rate control (speed)
o Multiplexing
Layer 2: Data link layer
It received raw bits from the physical layer and package it into frames

It provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the MAC
address
Generally function of data link layers
1. Physical Addressing:
 Uses physical addresses, such as MAC (Media Access Control) addresses, to identify the source and

destination devices on the same network segment.

2. Framing: is process of divides the packets received from network layer in to

manageable data units called frame.

3. Flow control: is mechanism controlling of overwhelming problem.

 Layer 2: Data link…
4. Error control: is adding of reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
• It uses techniques such as checksums and cyclic redundancy checks (CRC)
to verify the integrity of the received frames.

Single bit error Burst bit error

layer 3: Network layer
1. Internetworking:
 Internetworking refers to the logical gluing of heterogeneous physical networks
together to look like a single network to the upper transport and application
2. Addressing
layers.
 Network layer addresses are always logical addresses which means these
addresses are software based addresses which can be changed by appropriate
configurations. These addresses are called IP address which can be IPv4 or
3. Packetizing: IPv6
 is encapsulation of packets received from upper-layer protocols and makes new
packets.
4. Routing, Routing Protocols and Multicasting
 How do you choose a route (path) when you drive?
5. Fragmentation
 Making data or frame possible to pass through other networks which is this is called
Layer 4: Transport Layer
 The core or the heart of the whole protocol hierarchy
 It provides reliable, cost-effective data transfer from the source to the
destination on top of an unreliable network; process-to-process delivery
Responsibility of transport layer
1. Segmentations

2. Addressing
 It is port number that used identify each several processes run at application layer
and its length is a 16-bit unsigned integer, and ranging from [0 – 65535]

3. Connection Control
 A transport-layer protocol can be either
connectionless (UDP) or connection-oriented
(TCP)
4. Reliability
 Its services reliable or unreliable b/c of UDP and
TCP protocols
Layer 5: Session Layer
The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations

(called sessions) between applications

It is responsible for establishing, managing and terminating sessions

between end-user application processes.

It allows the systems to communicate in either half-duplex or full-duplex mode of
communication.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The primary responsibility is to ensure the compatibility of data formats

Acts as a translator or converter, transforming data from the application

layer into a format that can be understood by the receiving system.

This layer is primarily responsible for the following tasks

 Data translation,

 Data encryption for security purpose

 Data decryption

 Data compression for security purpose

 Data decompression
Layer 7: Application Layer
Application layer is responsible for providing user interfaces

Interacts directly with the end-user and provides a means for users to

access network services and resource

1. Service providing
 It support services such as email, remote file access and transfer.

 It facilitates the user to use the services of the network.

 It is used to develop network-based applications such as telnet, DHCP, FTP, SNMP.

Application Layer (Layer 7)…
2. The Client-Server Model
 Computer runs a program to either request a service from another computer
(client) or to provide a service to another computer (server)
 Examples of servers include web servers, mail servers, and file servers.
3. Addressing
 A client and a server communicate with each other using addresses
 Some examples of application layer address or they are server name
• Mail server address: [Link]
• SMIS server address: [Link]
• Web page (host name): [Link]
 So, application layer protocols have responsible to map these address with its
respective IP address with DNS.
83

 DNS is server or service provided at application layer to resolve IP addresses from

hostnames (URL),
Summary of OSI layer's responsibilities
1. Physical layer 2. Data link layer 3. Network layer
Framing
Internetworking
Bit signal transmission
Packetization
Bit synchronization Physical addressing Fragmentation
Flow control Defragmentation
Bit rate control (speed)
Addressing
Error detection and correction
Multiplexing Sequencing
5. Session layer Error notification
4. Transport layer
Connection establish
Segmentation
Connection management 6. Presentation layer
Addressing
Connection termination Security encryption
Flow control
Translation
Error detection and [Link] layer
84 Service providing  Compression
correction
Addressing
Client-server modeling Decompression
Network Protocols Standards and
Functions
 What is Protocols?
♣ A protocol is basically a synonym for the rule.
♣ In Computer Networks, basically, communication occurs between
entities in different systems.
♣ An entity is anything that is capable of sending or receiving
information.
♣ Any two entities cannot simply send bitstreams to each other and
expect to be understood.
Cont…
 The entities must need to agree on a protocol in order of
occurrence of the communication.

 A Protocol is a set of rules that mainly govern data

communications.
 The protocol mainly defines what is communicated, how
it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
Standards

 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and

creative market for the equipment manufacturers and they also
guarantee the national and international interoperability of the data,
telecommunication technology, and process.
e.g.
•Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
•International Organization of Standardization(ISO)
PROTOCOL IN EACH
LAYERS
Network layer protocols
Internet Control Message Protocol -ICMP
Used to report errors with delivery of IP data.
 Examples: of error reports by ICMP

IGMP- Internet Group Management Protocol

 Is a protocol that provides a way for an Internet computer to report its multicast group
membership to adjacent routers.
ARP(Address resolution protocol)
 Sender knows logical address of receiver but not its physical address
 ARP maps 32-bit logical (IP) address to 48-bit physical address.
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
 RARP is a TCP/IP protocol that allows any host to obtain its IP address from the server.
Transport layer protocol
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
 Numbering and sequencing each segment

 TCP waits for an acknowledgment of the receiving end’s.

 Retransmitting any segments that aren’t acknowledged.

 It is reliable protocols which means provide guaranteed delivery

 It is Connection oriented means that a virtual connection is established before any user data is

transferred.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)…
 It doesn’t follow segments.

 Because of this, it’s referred to as an unreliable protocol.

 but it is effective protocol even if it is unreliable

 Connectionless protocol.
 Lack of flow control and error control
 Faster and efficient

 Never pit in right order when segment arrive at destination.

Application layer Protocols
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Governs the transmission of mail messages and attachments

 SMTP is used in the case of outgoing messages

 More powerful protocols such as POP3 and IMAP4 are needed and available to manage incoming

messages
Telnet:
 It allows a user on a remote client machine

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 FTP’s functions are limited to listing and manipulating directories, typing file contents, and copying files

between hosts.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 This protocol can also stand as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying managers

of any sudden turn of events.

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 It’s used to manage communications between web browsers and web servers and opens the
right resource when you click a link, wherever that resource may actually reside.
Facilitate communication
Web browser Web server
Internet protocols
E.g. Firefox E.g. google
E.g. http

 Your browser can understand what you need when you enter a Uniform Resource Locator (URL),

which we usually refer to as a web address, e.g. [Link]

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)is also known as Secure Hypertext Transfer

Protocol.
 It uses Secure Sockets Layer (SSL).
 IP address can be assigned manually or
dynamically.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 Manual is done by administrators, where as server

assign IP dynamically.
 DHCP assigns IP addresses to hosts dynamically.
Read the following From Manuals

Protocols and their function for the following OSI layers

1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Session layer
4. Presentation layer
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
Suite
IP Addressing and
Subnetting
Classes of IP address
IP Classes (continued)
Network Address Range: Class A

 The designers of the IP address scheme decided that the first bit of the first
byte in a Class A network address must always be off, or 0. 0xxxxxxx
 This means a Class A address must be between 0 and 127 in the first byte,
inclusive.

 So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it can’t be
less or more.
 Understand that 0 and 127 are not valid in a Class A network because they’re
reserved addresses.

 The Class A format is as follows:

[Link]
 Class B
 In a Class B network, the RFCs (Request for Comments) state that the first bit of
the first byte must always be turned on but the second bit must always be turned
off.
10xxxxxx
 A Class B network is defined when the first byte is configured
from128 to 191.
 The first 2 octet are assigned to the network address and the
remaining 2 octet are used for node addresses.
The format is as follows:
[Link]
IP Classes (continued)
Class C
 For Class C networks, the RFCs define the first 2 bits of the first octet as
always turned on, but the third bit can never be on.
110xxxxx
So, if you see an IP address that starts at 192 and goes to 223, you’ll
know it is a Class C IP address.
 The first 3 octet of a Class C network address are dedicated to the
network portion of the address, with only 1 byte remaining for the node
address.

Here’s the format:

[Link]
 Cont.
 Class C

• Addresses are assigned to groups that do not meet the qualifications to

obtain Class A or B addresses

• Each Class C address supports 254 hosts

• Which is reserved for numerous networks with small number of nodes.

Private IP Addresses
 These addresses can be used on a private network, but they’re not routable
through the Internet.
 Is a range of non-internet facing IP addresses used in an internal network
 This is designed for the purpose of creating a measure of well-needed
security, but it also conveniently saves valuable IP address space.
 Private IP addresses are provided by network devices, such as routers,
using network address translation.
 Network Address Translation (NAT), which basically takes a private IP
address and converts it for use on the Internet.
Public IP Address
 A Public IP address is the one which is globally recognizable and our
ISP (Internet Service Provider) or IANA provides the same.
 Public IP identifies our home network to the outside world.
 It is an IP address that is unique throughout the entire Internet.
 Each customer who uses the Global/Public IP Block needs to pay the
Service Provider or IANA.
Network Addressing
 IP addressesidentify both the network and the host
◦ The division between the two is not specific to a certain number of octets
 Subnet mask
 A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and
setting network bits to all 1s.
 Indicates how much of the IP address represents the network or subnet
 The “255” address is always assigned to a broadcast address, and the “0”
address is always assigned to a network address
 Standard (default) subnet masks:
◦ Class A subnet mask is [Link]
◦ Class B subnet mask is [Link]
◦ Class C subnet mask is [Link]
Subdividing IP Classes
 Subnetting - process of segmenting a network into multiple
smaller network spaces called sub-networks or Subnets.
 The act of taking bits from the host portion of the address
and reserving them to define the subnet address instead .

Steps to create subnet:

1. Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet
2. Determine the number of required network IDs
IP SUBNETTING IS FUNDAMENTAL
BASIC SUBNETTING

 When network administrators create subnets

◦ They borrow bits from the original host field to make a set
of subnetworks

◦ The number of borrowed bits determines how many

subnetworks and hosts will be available
SUBNETTING FORMULAS
 Calculate Number of Subnets

 Calculate Number of Hosts

1
1
0
SUBNETTING BASED ON HOST REQUIREMENTS
There are two considerations when planning subnets:

1. Number of Subnets required

2. Number of Host addresses required

Formula to determine number of useable hosts

2^n-2
• 2^n (where n is the number of host bits remaining) is used to calculate the
number of hosts -2 .
• Subnetwork ID and broadcast address cannot be used one ach subnet

Calculate number of subnets

• Formula

9
2^n (where n is the number of bits borrowed)
BASIC SUBNETTING
 Borrowing Bits to Create Subnets
 Borrowing 1 bit 21 = 2 subnets

Borrowing 1 Bit from the host portion creates 2 subnets with the same subnet
mask

Subnet 0 ? Subnet 1 ? Subnet Mask ?

3
SUBNETS IN USE
32-25 = 7, 2∧7= 128 host on each subnet

Subnet 0
Network [Link]-127/25

Subnet 1
Network [Link]-255/25
1
1
3
 CREATING 4 SUBNETS
 Borrowing 2 bits to create 4 subnets. 22 = 4 subnets
32-26= 6 , 2 power of 6, 64 host on each subnet

1
1
4
Communication Between Subnets

 A router is necessary for devices on different networks and subnets to

communicate.
 Each router interface must have an IPv4 host address that belongs to the
network or subnet that the router interface is connected to.

 Devices on a network and subnet use the router interface

attached to their LAN as their default gateway.

TRADITIONAL(FLSM) SUBNETTING WASTES ADDRESSES
 Traditional subnetting - same number of addresses is allocated for each subnet.
Subnets that require fewer addresses have unused (wasted) addresses. For example,
WAN links only need 2 addresses.
Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) or subnetting a subnet provides more
efficient use of addresses.
 Variable Length Subnet Masks

Variable length subnet masking (VLSM)

◦ VLSM allows a network space to be

divided in unequal parts.

◦ Allows different masks on the subnets

depending on how many bits have been
borrowed for a particular subnet.

◦ Essentially done by subnetting the subnets

◦ Network is first subnetted, and then the

subnets are subnetted again.

◦ Process repeated as necessaryto create

subnets of various sizes.
Procedure of implementing VLSM – In VLSM, subnets use block size based on requirement so
subnetting is required multiple times

• Suppose there is an administrator that has four departments to manage.

• These are

• Sales and purchase department with 120 computers,

• Development department with 50 computers,

• Accounts department with 26 computers and

• Management department with 5 computers.

• If the administrator has IP [Link]/24, department wise IPs can be allocated by following

these steps:

[Link] each segment select the block

size that is greater than or equal to
the actual requirement which is the
sum of host addresses, broadcast
addresses and network addresses.
Procedure of implementing VLSM – In VLSM, subnets use block size based on requirement so
subnetting is required multiple times

• Arrange all the segments in descending order based on the block size that is from

highest to lowest requirement.

[Link] last
[Link] highest IP [Link] next segment [Link] the segment requires
available has to be requires an IP to handle next IP subnet 5 valid hosts IP
allocated to highest 50 hosts. The IP subnet [Link]/27 which can be
requirement with network number can fulfill the fulfilled by the
so the sales and [Link]/26 is the requirements of subnet
purchase department next highest which can the accounts [Link]/29
gets [Link]/25 be assigned to 62 hosts department as it which has the
which has 126 valid thus fulfilling the has 30 valid hosts mask as
addresses that can requirement of IP which can be [Link]
easily be available for development assigned to 26 is chosen as per
120 hosts. The subnet department. The subnet computers. The the requirement.
mask used is mask used is mask used is
[Link] [Link] [Link]
The End of Tutorials!
Q?
Good Luck!