REGULATION AND CONTROL

MATHEMATICAL MODELING 2
Goal for today’s lecture

 Mathematical model Representations method

 Signal flow graph
 State space model
Signal Flow Graph
Introduction

 Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed by Samuel Jefferson

Mason.

 Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also called Mason’s gain
formula.

 A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed

branches.

 It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives the
relationships among the signals.
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs

 Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax

 The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

 Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

 Every transfer function in a signal flow graph is designed by a Branch.
 Branches are always unidirectional.
 The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
From Block diagram to Signal Flow diagram
Cont’d
Signal-Flow Graph Models

r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

a11 x1  a12 x2  r1 x1

a21 x1  a22 x2  r2 x2
 Cont’d

xo is input and x4 is output

x1  ax0  bx1  cx2 f

c
x2  dx1  ex3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x3  fx0  gx2
x4  hx 3 b e
Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1

• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4

• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node is passed more than
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4
ones. i.e.,
• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e., X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to

X2 to X4 , are forward paths.

• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on the same node. i.e.; X2

to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.

 Cont’d
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path. i.e. the gain of
forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21 A32 A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of the feedback
loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32 A23.
• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have no nodes in
common.
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

1. Input node.
2. Output node.
3. Forward paths.
4. Feedback paths (loops).
5. Determine the loop gains of the
feedback loops.
6. Determine the path gains of the forward
paths.
7. Non-touching loops
 Cont’d

• There are two forward path gains;

 Cont’d
• There are four loops
 Cont’d

• Nontouching loop gains;

Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)

 The block diagram reduction technique requires successive application of

fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer function.

 On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single transfer

function requires the application of one formula.

 The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow graph to

the simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.

 Cont’d
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is;
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
Where

n = number of forward paths.

Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since ∆=0 is the
system characteristic equation.
 Cont’d

n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
• ∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains of all possible
two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the products of the gains of all possible three
loops that do not touch each other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-
touching loop gains

• ∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th forward path (Δ i =
1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
Systematic approach

1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.

2. Calculate all loop transfer functions

3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time

4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time, etc…..

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3, and 4

6. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i

Example 1: Determine the control ratio C/R and the canonical block
diagram of the feedback control system.
 Cont’d

Therefore, C P11  P2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops

L1  G1G4 H1 , L2  G1G2G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2

 Cont’d

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1  L1  L2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H 1  G1G2 G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 

 Cont’d

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
Cont’d
Example 2: Calculate the transfer function of the system

P1

P2
1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.
P1  G1G2 G3G4 (path 1) and P2  G5G6G7 G8 (path 2)

2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7
3. Consider two non-touching loops.
L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3
 Cont’d
4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 

  1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 
G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 
 Cont’d
Eliminate forward path-1

1  1  L3  L4 
1  1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 

Eliminate forward path-2

 2  1  L1  L2 

 2  1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 
 Cont’d

Y ( s ) P11  P2  2

R( s) 

Y ( s) G1G2G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7  G5G6G7G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 


R( s ) 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 
Exercise 1

 Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in figure below.
 Cont’d
 There is only one forward Path.

P1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )G5 ( s )

 Cont’d
 There are four feedback loops.
 Cont’d

 Non-touching loops taken two at a time.

 Cont’d
 Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
 Cont’d

Eliminate forward path-1

Exercise 2: Calculate the transfer function of the system represented by
following Signal Flow Graph

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

3
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1 P11  P2  2  P3  3
 
R( s )  
 Cont’d

P3  A42 A54 A65 A76

P1  A32 A43 A54 A65 A76

P2  A72
 Cont’d

L1  A32 A23 L5  A76 A67

L9  A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L2  A43 A34 L6  A77
L3  A54 A45 L7  A42 A34 A23 L10  A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23

L4  A65 A56 L8  A65 A76 A67

Two non-touching loops

L1 L3 L1 L8 L2 L8 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1 L4 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L7 L6 L7
L1 L5 L2 L5 L3 L6
L1 L6 L2 L6
Three non-touching loops

L1 L3 L5 L2 L4 L6
L1 L4 L6 L4 L6 L7
L1 L3 L6
State Space Modeling
Introduction

 State space modeling is the base for modern control theory.

 The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (called state variables)

such that knowledge of these variables at , together with knowledge of the input for ,
completely determines the behavior of the system for any time .

 The state variables of a dynamic system are the variables making up the smallest set

of variables that determine the state of the dynamic system.

 If at least n variables are needed to completely describe the behavior of a dynamic

 Cont’d
 If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behavior of a given system, then these

n state variables can be considered the n components of a vector x. Such a vector is called state
vector.

 A state vector is thus a vector that determines uniquely the system state x(t) for any time , once

the state at is given and the input u(t) for is specified.

 The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of the xis, xis, where , , ……., are

state variables, is called a state space. Any state can be represented by a point in the state space.

 In state-space analysis we are concerned with three types of variables that are involved in the

modeling of dynamic systems: input variables, output variables, and state variables.
 Cont’d

 The outputs of integrators serve as a state variables.

 The number of state variables to completely define the dynamics of the system is

equal to the number of integrators involved in the system.

 Assume that a multiple input, multiple output system involves n integrators.

 Assume also that there are r inputs (t), (t), ……., (t) and m outputs (t), (t), ……., (t).

 Define n outputs of the integrators as state variables: , , ……., .

 Cont’d

 Then the system may be described by

, ,…, ; , ,…, ; )

, ,…, ; , ,…, ; )
.
.
.

, ,…, ; , ,…, ; )
 Cont’d

 The outputs (t), (t), ……., (t) of the system may be given by

, ,…, ; , ,…, ; )

, ,…, ; , ,…, ; )
.
.
.

, ,…, ; , ,…, ; )
 Cont’d

 If we define
 Cont’d
 Then is the state equation and is the output equation.

 If vector f and/or g involve time t explicitly, then the system is called a time varying system.

 For linearized operating state we have:

Where is called the state matrix, the input matrix, the output matrix, and the direct transmission matrix.
 For time-invariant system
Block diagram representation of control system in state space
Example 3: Drive a state equation and output equation
 From the diagram, the system equation is

 This system is of second order. This means that the system involves two
integrators. Lets us define state variables and as

 Then we obtain
 Cont’d

 The output equation is

 In vector-matrix form:

and
 In the standard form:
Cont’d
Correlation between transfer function and state space equations
 The Laplace transforms of the standard notation of the state space equations (for zero initial
conditions:

 Substituting in the second equation we have:

 Thus the transfer function becomes;

 In other words, the eigenvalues of A are identical to the poles of G(s).

Example 4: Find the transfer function; continued from Example 3

 Taking the transfer function equation and substitute A, B, C, and D we have:

 Note that;

 Thus, we have
Reading assignment

 From the Book Modern Control Engineering (5th edition)

 State space representation of scalar differential equations systems
 Linearization of non-linear mathematical models
 Mathematical modeling of a mechanical and Electrical system
 Mathematical modeling of fluid system and thermal system
Assignment ( Due date , Oct 29 till 12 PM)

 From the Book Modern Control Engineering (5th edition)

 B-3-5
 B3-6
 B-3-7
 B-3-9
 B-3-13
 B-4-3
 B-4-6
Next lecture

 Mathematical modeling in MATLAB