ADVANCED RESEARCH METHODS

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
 1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH

The word research is composed of two words , re

and search.
Re means:
 again, anew or over again
Search means:
 To examine closely and carefully
 To test and try, or
 To investigate
Together they form a noun describing a careful and
systematic study and investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
 Redman and Mory . It is a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.”
 Encarta dictionary “methodical investigation into a subject in
order to discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to
develop a plan of action based on the facts discovered.
 Cont.

 The systematic approach concerning generalization and the

formulation of a theory is also research.

 Research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of

identifying the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the
facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem
or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation
(Kothari).
 1.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present. In social science and business research we
quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies.
 Cont.

The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
Most ex post facto research projects are used for
descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items .
For example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, the characteristics of users of a given product;
the degree to which product use varies with income,
age, sex or other characteristics; or the number who
saw a specific television commercial or similar data.
 Cont.

Ex post facto studies also include attempts by

researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables. The methods of
research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods.
 Cont.

Analytical (experimental) research

Experimentation will refer to that process of
research in which one or more variables are
manipulated under conditions, which permit the
collection of data, which show the effects.
Experiments will create situation so that you as
a researcher can obtain the particular data
needed and can measure the data accurately.
 Cont.

 Experiments are artificial in the sense that the situations are

usually created for testing purposes.

 This artificiality is the essence of the experimental method, since

it gives you more control over the factors you are studying.

 If you can control the factors, which are present in a given

situation, you can obtain more conclusive evidence of cause and
effect relationships between any two of them.
 Cont.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental

 Applied research (action) aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization. marketing research or evaluation research are
examples of applied research.
 Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution
for some pressing practical problem
 Cont.

 Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations

and with the formulation of a theory.
 “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research.”
 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
 Cont.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can
be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are
interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior
(i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important
type of qualitative research.
 Cont.

This type of research aims at discovering the underlying

motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the
purpose.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find
out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research.
 Motivation of Doing Research

 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential

benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.
 Research Process
Review the literature

Define Review concepts

research and theory Formulate Design Analyze Interpret
Review previous hypothesis research data and report
problem research findings
 Criteria of Good Research

 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and

common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
 Cont.

 The procedural design of the research should be carefully

planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
 The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate.
 The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity
 Good research is systematic: it
means that research is
structured with specified steps to be undertaken In
other words, we can state the qualities of a good
research be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well-defined set of rules
Good research is logical: This implies that research is
guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value
in carrying out research. Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction
is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise
Good research is empirical: It implies that research is
related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
When Should Business Research be Undertaken?
Is sufficient time
available?

Yes

Is information
adequate? NO Do not
undertake Business Research
Yes

High importance
of decision?

Yes

Research benefits
greater than costs? Undertake Business Research

06/20/2024 21
 CHAPTER TWO

Defining Research Problem and Hypothesis

Formulation
 What is a research problem?

 It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in

the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Components
 There must be an individual or a group or an organization
which has some difficulty or the problem.
 There must be some objective(s) to be attained
 There must be at least two courses of action, for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain.
 There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives.
 Cont.

There must be some environment(s) to which the

difficulty pertain.
 Techniques in Defining a Problem

 Defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries

within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-
determined objective in view.
 (i) statement of the problem in a general way;
 (ii) understanding the nature of the problem;
 (iii) surveying the available literature
 (iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and
 (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
 Problem Formulation

A problem formulation(identification) means

choosing a topic or defining the general interest
area of the study.
 Sources of Research Topics

Magazines and periodicals

Every day situations
Personal experiences
Critical appraisal of literature
Previous research
Existing theories
Social issues
Practical experiences
Brainstorming
Consultation with expertise
 Research Topic Relevance

Basic questions that should be answered

Is the topic too broad?
Can the problem be really investigated?
Are the data susceptible to analysis?
Is the problem significant
-Is the problem add knowledge to the information already
available in the field?
-What is the real purpose of the study?
Can the result of the study be generalized
-one must generalize from it
 Cont.

What cost and time can be involved?

Is planned approach is appropriate for the study?
Is there any potential harm to the subjects
 Formulation of Hypothesis and Research Questions

 A hypothesis is often described as an attempt by the researcher to

explain the phenomenon of interest.
 It is a formal statement regarding the relation between variables
and it is tested directly.
 It is a statement of what we expect to observe if the theory is
true.
 Cont.

 In formulating a research hypothesis, please keep yourself aware

of the following criteria:
 Stand a test;
 Be expressed in clear language;
 Be in accordance with them general theme of other hypotheses
statements in the same field of study, and should be regarded as
valid;
 Be coordinated with the theory of science;
 Be a tentative answer for the formulated problem;
 Cont.

 Be logical and simplistic;

 Consider available research techniques (to be able to analyze and
interpret the results);
 Be specific; and
 Be relevant to the collection of empirical phenomenon, and not
merely conclude value judgment. For example,
 Education of girls’ appears to increase their contraceptive use
and thus reduces the fertility level.
 Poor houses are likely to have large family size.
 Numbers of children may be lower as education level increases
END OF CHAPTER TWO
CHAPTER THREE

Proposal
 The research proposal is the detailed plan of study

A research proposal is a formal document that sets out exactly

what is intended to be achieved in the research
and how it is to be done

The objective in writing a proposal is to describe what you will

do, why it should be done, how you will do it and what you
expect will result
The quality of the final research project/ thesis often depends on
the quality of the research proposal
It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the project.
The research proposal should consist of three major
chapters, including introduction, literature review and
methodology. In addition, to the three major chapters, the
research proposal should also provide an abstract,
reference or bibliography, implementation schedule and,
implementation budget.
 The introduction and methodology sections are written in
present or future tense in the research proposal
 Requirements for proposal
1. Paper Specifications
 Color: White
 Size: 21 cm x 29.7cm (A4)
 Weight: > 80 gm
2. Typing
 Left margin: > 3.5 cm
 Right margin: > 2.0cm
 Top margin: > 3.0 cm
 Bottom margin: > 2.5 cm
 Spacing: Double
 Side: Front single
 Number of lines: < 25 per page
 Font size 12 (size 10 is smaller than 12)
 Font type: Times New Roman
 Font style: Regular
 Font color: Black
 Breaking a word on 2 lines: Not allowed
 Corrections with fluid: Not allowed
 Overwriting: Not allowed
 Crossing out words: Not allowed
 Typing machine: Computer
 Printing quality: Laser or better quality
 Copies: High quality photocopy
Research Proposal /Thesis format
Preliminary pages:
 Top cover
 Title page
 Approval sheet
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Abbreviation and Acronyms
 Abstract
The Text/Body Part
 Chapter One: Introduction
 Chapter Two: Literature review
 Chapter Three: Methodology
 Study design
 Study area
 Study subjects
 Sample size and Sampling methods
 Data sources & method of collection/measurement
 Methods of data presentation, analysis and interpretation
 References
Appendices

 Research budget
 Research program
 Top cover

Typed in all capital letters, should include

Approved thesis title typed in the middle of the page
Name of the degree, e g. M .Sc. Thesis
Full name of the author typed in the middle of the page
Name and location of the University
Month and year of thesis submission typed 5 cm above the
bottom margin
 Sample of the top cover

THE EFFECT OF MARKETING MIX ON

COMPANY PERFROMANCE

MBA IN MARKETING MANAGEMENT

NAME :

ETHIOPIA ADVENTIST COLLEGE .

SHASHEMENE, ETHIOPIA
MAY 12 2018
 Title page

 Title
 A concise statement of the main topic and should identify the
variables.
Title length commonly not longer than 15 words.
It is the first page under the top cover typed in all capital letters
and center justified on each line with the following information.
Approved thesis title 5 cm below the top of the page
Full name of the author typed 8 lines below the title
 Example title page
THE EFFECT OF MARKETING MIX ON COMPANY PERFROMANCE

A THESIS PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDEIS ETHIOPIA

ADVENTIST COLLEGE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SHASHEMENE, ETHIOPIA
MAY 12 2018
 Acknowledgement
 This is to appreciate the people who have assisted you
direct or indirect in the proposal preparation.
 This page is largely a matter of courtesy
 Acknowledges the following bodies for the assistance
 Guide/advisor
 Other academicians and Professionals who rendered
assistance
 Authorities of Libraries
 Respondents of questionnaire/Schedule
 Persons from administrative assistance is received
 Any other individuals who assisted in the proposal
Table of Contents
 The section titles should be in caps and bold
 The subheadings should follow each chapter title and should
be in lower case.
 Example
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Data set and Measurement of Variables
List of tables
 This should capture the title and page number where the table
is found.
 The numbering style should be two numbers level
 Example
Table 3.1: Distribution of Target Population……………21
List of figures
 This should capture the title and page number of the
figure where figure is found.
 The numbering style should be two numbers level
Example
Figure1.1: Gender of the Respondents……………17
 Abstract

 This is a brief statement of the problem, objectives of

the study, target population, sampling technique and
sample size, instruments, data collection, data
processing and analysis
 The purpose of the abstract is to provide a clear and
concise summary of the:
 Purpose or problem
 Methodology to be used
 It should in italics
 Not more than half a page
 The abstract is usually a one block, single spaced and
without citations
 Key word should be included
 Chapter one: Introduction

 The introduction section of the proposal should include

1.1 Background of the problem/study
 In this section, the researcher defines the background of the
study by providing a brief discussion of key theoretical
approaches and findings reported in earlier related studies.
 Trends related to the problem, unresolved issues and social
concerns are discussed.
 Authoritative sources or citations should be provided in the
section.
 Should show understanding and origin of the problem
 Start with the global perspective followed by the local
scenario.
 Should be approximately 5 pages (4-6 pages)
 1.2 Statement of the problem
 The problem statement describes the need for the
research project in terms of the knowledge gap to be
filled.
 The researcher should present a clear and precise
statement that indicates the gap that previous research
studies have not addressed.
 Authoritative sources or citations should be used to
support the problem statement.
 Note; Length – maximum 2 pages
 1.3 Objectives of the study
1.3.1The study or general objective
 In this section the major research objective is addressed.
 The purpose statement should emphasize practical outcomes or products of the
study.
 study should have one general objective which should be in line with the title.
Examples,
Topics
1. The Impact of cash management on the performance of manufacturing
companies in Ethiopia
2. The impact of promotional tools on sales volume of walia brewery
General objectives
3. The main objective of this study is to examine the impact of cash management
on the performance of manufacturing companies in Ethiopia
4. The main objective of this study is to determine the impact of promotional
tools on sales volume of walia brewery
1.3.2 The Specific objectives
 Should be a breakdown of the general objective .
Example
 To determine the promotional tools walia brewery
currently using
 To assess the sales volume trend of walia brewery
 To examine the relationship between the 4 promotional
tools and sales volume of the company
 To investigate the influence of each promotional tools
on sales volume of the company
 To identify the promotional tool which mostly affect
the sales volume of the company
 1.4 Research Questions
 should be in line with the specific objectives and equal in number.
 Should be stated in the form of questions and not statements.
 The research questions need to be broad enough to allow further
breakdown into questionnaire or interview guide items for the data
collection.
 On the average 3-5 research questions are sufficient.
 What promotional tools walia brewery currently using
 What sales volume trend of walia brewery looks like
 Is there any relationship exist between the promotional tools and
sales volume of the company
 To what extent each promotional tools influence sales volume of the
company
 Which promotional tool mostly affect the sales volume of the
company
 1.5 . Develop a Hypothesis
Once, you identify your research
1-54
question, you need to
translate your research question into a testable
hypothesis.
The relationship between the 4 promotional tools and
sales volume of the company is positive
promotional tools have an influence on sales volume of
the company
 1.5 Significance of the study
 Should illustrate why the researcher is conducting the
research and whom it shall benefit.
 In this section the researcher describes the values or the
benefits that will be gained from doing the study.
 The significance of the study is concerned with the
relevance of the problem both to the practice and theory.
 The significance is for:
 The researcher
 The case study organization
 For policy maker
 Other researcher
 1.6 Scope of the study

It should cite the focus of the study geographical area

or target group/population/depth of focus in concepts
or variables.
In this section, the researcher describes the focus or
scope of the study to enable an eager reader to make
generalization of the findings.
 1.7 Limitation of the study
This brings out the perceived factors which might affect
the research in the course of the study.
 It should also show the suggested methods which are
supposed to deal with the problem.
The limitations should not be stated in terms of time or
financial resources constraints.
Researchers are expected to plan and implement research
projects within the available time and financial resources.
 1.8 Organization of the study
 It is always important to provide structure on the organization of
the proposal section.
For example this thesis is structured as follows:
 Chapter one provides the research background, research
objectives, significance of the study, scope, and the limitations
encountered in the course of the study
 Chapter two presents literature review on the determinant
of………and a conceptual framework
 Chapter three deals with the methodology employed in the study;
 the study findings and their interpretation are presented in chapter
four; while
 chapter five has conclusions of the study and the policy
implications.
 Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
 Literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to
your project. However, start this chapter with an overview of contents of the
chapter. This should be very brief and precise.
2.2 Theoretical review
 This section should discuss current/relevant theory that supports the research
problem been studied. For example in marketing problem particularly consumer
related, the underlying marketing theory relevant to your project e.g. Consumer
behaviour, brand research, customer satisfaction) should be discussed.
2.3 Empirical Review
 This literature review section of the proposal should present a review of the
literature related to the problem and purpose.
 The literature review section should therefore be organized or categorized
according to the research questions or specific objectives in order to ensure
relevance to the research problem.
 literature relevant to the problem being investigated showing clearly the linkage
of literature review to the research questions
 During literature review, it’s important to note the
following points:
 You should evaluate what has already been done, show the
relationships between different works, and show how it relates
to your project.
 Refer to work by recognized experts in your chosen area
 Consider and discuss work that supports and work that opposes
your ideas
 Make reasoned judgments regarding the value of others’ work
to your research
 Support your arguments with valid evidence in a logical manner
 Ensure the review is done chronologically
 Each key variable should be 2-3 pages long.
 The hypothesized variables should be subheadings of the
literature review to form a framework that would help in
analysis.
 It is not supposed to be just a summary of other people's work
but Critique of the existing literature relevant of the study
 Review and critique any previous studies. For the review to be
critical, you will need to develop critical judgment.
 Indicate what has been done by other researchers including
the methodologies used and identify the gaps.
 You should also observe the trend in research from studying
recently published articles in the top journals.
 That way you will learn about the trend, i.e., what are the hot
topics being studied these days.
 You should not spend your valuable time studying and writing
on the “dead” topics.
2.4 Summary of literature
 This sub-section is supposed to summarize the
literature reviewed and bring out clearly the research
gaps identified, if possible in a table format
2.5 Conceptual framework
The Conceptual framework should demonstrate an
understanding of what variable influences what. For
example using the topic below
Topic: impact of working capital management on
profitability.
The variables could be : ROA to measure
profitability(dependent variables), CTO (creditors
turnover ratio), DTO (debtors turnover ratio),
ITO( inventory turnover ratio) and CR (current ratio)
as working capital management criteria.
Independent variables Dependent variable

Working capital
CTO
DTO Profitability
ITO ROA
CR
 Chapter Three: Methodology
The research methodology section of the proposal should provide
explanation and description of the methods and procedures to be used in
conducting the study.
 Research methodology is an important chapter in research work. It is
important to start this chapter with an overview of contents of the
chapter. This should be very brief and precise.
3.1 Description of research area

3.2 Research design

 In this section, the researcher should identify, and provide justification
for the specific research design or strategy used in carrying out the
study.
 Research designs include exploratory, descriptive, causal, or quasi
experimental. The research design should emphasize on defining the
design, revealing its merits and providing justification for its selection.
 3.3 Target Population
 The researcher should identify and describe the
characteristics of the population involved in the study.
 Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
 Population forms a basis from which the sample or
subjects for the study is drawn.
 Clearly identify the population and the target population
and its size and characteristics.
 Justify the source of the target population.
 Where necessary provide the Sampling frame in the form
of a table
 3.4 sample size and sampling techniques

 Determine the sample size

 Identify which sampling techniques will be used and

why:
 3.5 Data collection instruments
 The researcher is supposed to discuss the type of data which will be
collected. This should be followed by the instruments to be used to
collect the data.
 In this section, the researcher should describe the major methods
for collecting data from the subjects.
 The major methods for obtaining data in a study may include
interviews, questionnaires and observation techniques.
 The data collection instruments should be developed and organized
on the basis of the research questions or specific objectives to
ensure relevance to the research problem.
 A description of the instruments should be given, whether they are
researcher developed or standardized instruments. A description of
the nature of instrument items, validity and reliability, and
administration procedures should be provided.
Primary data is the data collected by the
researcher themselves, i.e.
 interview
 observation
 action research
 case studies
 life histories
 questionnaires
 Collection of Secondary Data
Secondary data are those which have been collected by some
other persons for his purpose and published.
Advantages of Secondary data
 The information can be collected by incurring least cost.
 The time requires for obtaining the information is very less.
 Most of the secondary data are those published by big
institutions. So they contain large quantity of information.
Disadvantages of Secondary data
 Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s
attempt, it need not be suitable for a researcher, who makes use
of it.
 It may be inaccurate and unreliable.
 It may contain certain errors
 Sources of Secondary Data
 There are varieties of published sources from which one can
get information for his research work.
 Official report of the central, state and local government
 Official publications of the foreign governments and
international bodies like UNO and its subordinate bodies.
 Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks,
Cooperative Societies and Similar
 Semi Government and Autonomous Organizations
 Technical journals, News papers, Books, Periodicals
 Publications of research Organizations, Centers,
Institutes, and reports submitted by
 Economists, Research scholars
 Choice between Primary and Secondary
Method
 The following factors are to be considered while
choosing between primary and secondary methods.
 Nature and scope of enquiry
 Availability of time and money
 Degree of accuracy desired.
 Status of the investigator
 Description of variables
 Independent Variable: variable which affect other
variable
 Dependent Variable: The variable that is the effect or
is the result or outcome of another variable
 In statistical analysis a variable is identified by the
symbol (X) for independent variable and by the symbol
(Y) for the dependent variable.
Example: Research studies indicate that successful new
product development has an influence on the stock market
price of a company. That is, the more successful the new
product turns out to be, the higher will be the stock
market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the
new product is the independent variable, and stock
 Data collection procedure
After development of the data collection instruments what next?
This section describes step by step which will be followed in
data collection. It should discuses which method(s) to be used to
address Validity and reliability of the study instruments. Such
methods include pilot-testing, Cronbach alpha, test-retest method
among others.
 Beside this the researcher should discuss the method of
administering the data collection instruments, justify the use of
such method. Issues related to research permit, research
assistants should also be discussed.
 Finally the research should state the approximate time required
to collect the data.
 3.8 Data analysis and presentation
 This should present detailed steps of how the quantitative and qualitative data will be
analyzed.
 For quantitative data it should included descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
to be used, also show which of these will be used for which objective or hypothesis.
 Descriptive statistics include frequencies, measures of central tendencies (mean,
medium or mode) and measures of dispersion (standard deviation, range or variance).
 Inferential statistics involve measurement or relationships and differences between or
among the variables. Inferential statistics include correlation, regression and analysis
of variance among others.
 The qualitative data analysis technique used should be content analysis.
 The researcher should include, the procedures used to examine the variables and steps
taken to control for extraneous influences that might threaten the findings of the study.
 Finally the section should explain how the results of data analysis will be presented
and justify why use that specific method of presentation.
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH DESIGN (PLANNING OF RESEARCH

PROJECT
 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure
 Cont.

What is the study about?

Why is the study being made?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can the required data be found?
What periods of time will the study include?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of data collection will be used?
How will the data be analyzed?
In what style will the report be prepared?
 Cont.

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may

split the overall research design into the following parts:
A. The sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study;
B. The observational design which relates to the conditions
under which the observations are to be made;
C. The statistical design which concerns with the question of
how many items are to be observed and how the information
and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
D. The operational design which deals with the techniques by
which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical
and observational designs can be carried out.
 Features of Good Research Design

The design which minimize bias and maximize

reliability of data collected and analyzed.
The design which gives smallest experimental error
The design which yields maximal information and
provide an opportunity for considering man aspects
of a problem.
 Cont.

Appropriate research design for a given problem

should involve the consideration of the following
factors
The means of obtaining information;
The availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any;
The objective of the problem to be studied;
The nature of the problem to be studied; and
The availability of time and money for the research
work.
 Important concepts relating to research design

Dependent and Independent variables : A concept which can

take on different quantitative values is called a variable. If
one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the
variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable.
Extraneous variables : Independent variables that are not
related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables
Control: One important characteristic of a good research
design is to minimize the influence or effect of extraneous
variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we
design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous
Confounded relationship: When the
dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between
the dependent and independent variables is said to
be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Research hypothesis : When a prediction
or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research
hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable
Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing
research :When the purpose of research is to test a research
hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be
of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is
termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a
research in which an independent variable is not manipulated
is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research

Experimental and control group : In an experimental hypothesis-

testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it
is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to
some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental
group’.
Treatments: The different conditions under
which experimental and control groups are
put are usually referred to as ‘treatments
Experiment (absolute and comparative): The
process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an
experiment
Experimental units The pre-determined plots or
the blocks, where different treatments are used, are
known as experimental units. Such experimental
units must be selected (defined) very carefully.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design for exploratory research

Formulative research studies.
 The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a
problem for more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas
and insights.
 Research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible
enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects
of a problem under study.
 Cont.

Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design

for such studies are mostly used :
A. The survey of concerning literature; happens to be the most
simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the
research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated
by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research
B. The experience survey :means the survey of people who have had
practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object
of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research
problem
C. The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples. is also
a fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses for
research. It is particularly suitable in areas where
there is little experience to serve as a guide. This
method consists of the intensive study of selected
instances of the phenomenon in which one is
interested. For this purpose the existing records, if
any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other
approach may be adopted.
 Cont.

Research design for descriptive research

Descriptive research studies are those studies which
are concerned with describing the characteristics of
a particular individual, or of a group.
The research design must make enough provision
for protection against bias and must maximize
reliability, with due concern for the economical
completion of the research study.
 The design in such studies must be rigid and not
flexible
 Cont.

The research design in such studies must focus

attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the
study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be
needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be
found and with what time period should the data be
related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
 THANK YOU
End of chapter 4
 CHAPTER FIVE
SOURCE and METHOD OF
DATA COLLECTION
 Data Collection

 stage where the investigator gathers or collects

information from his already selected samples.
 Source of Data
◦ Primary Data: data collected by the investigator
◦ Secondary Data: data which have already been
collected and used by others
Methods of Primary Data Collection

 Observation Method: a method of collecting

information by observing the behavior needed.
 Advantages:
◦ subjective bias is eliminated
◦ the information obtained relates to what is
currently happening
◦ independent of respondents’ willingness to respond
 Limitations
◦ Expensive method, Very limited information
◦ Unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observation
 Methods of Primary Data Collection

 Interview Method
◦ Personal interview method requires a person asking
questions in a face to face contact to the other
person.
 Structured interviews: use of a set of predetermined
questions and standardised techniques.
 Unstructured interviews: are characterised by a
flexibility of approach to questioning.
◦ Telephone interviews: consists of contacting
respondents on telephone itself.
The chief merits of the interview method are:
 more information and in greater depth
 interviewer can usually control the person answers the
questions
 language can be adapted to the level of the person
interviewed
 supplementary information about the respondent can
be obtained
The chief weaknesses of the interview method are:
 a very expensive method
 bias of interviewer

 is relatively more time consuming

 Questionnaires
 consists of a number of questions printed or
typed in a definite order on a form or set of
forms.
 The merits claimed on behalf of this method are
as follows.
◦ low cost
◦ free from the bias of the interviewer
◦ respondents have adequate time to give answers
◦ respondents can also be reached conveniently
◦ large samples can be used
 The main demerits of this system can also be
listed here
◦ low rate of return
◦ can be used only when respondents are educated
 Collection of Secondary Data

o data that are already available.

o may either be published data or unpublished data. It
includes:
o publications of the central, state or local governments
o Publications of foreign governments or international
bodies
o technical and trade journals
o books, magazines and newspapers
o reports and publications of various associations
o reports prepared by research scholars, universities
o public records and statistics and historical documents
END OF CHAPTER
FIVE
 CHAPTER SIX

SAMPLE DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

 Concepts in sampling

Census and sample survey

Sample
Sampling technique
 Sample Design

It refers to the technique or the procedure the

researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.
Sample design may as well lay down the number of
items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample.
 Sample design is determined before data are
collected.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which
should be reliable and appropriate for his research
study
 Steps in sample design

I. Type of universe
II. Sampling unit
III. Source list( sampling frame)
IV. Size of sample
An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements
of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
V. Parameters of interest
VI. Budgetary constraint
VII Sampling procedure
 Selecting sampling procedure

The cost of collecting the data

The cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the
data.
Two causes of incorrect inferences
systematic bias (results from errors in the sampling
procedures)
sampling error.
 Cont.

Systematic bias are the result of the following factors:

Inappropriate sampling frame (source list)
Defective measuring device
Non-respondents
Indeterminacy principle (observed and non-
observed)
Natural bias in the reporting of data
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE
DESIGN

 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling
error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available
for the research study.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
 Sampling techniques

Simple random sampling

Random number tables
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126
Suppose we are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a population of
5000 units, bearing numbers from 3001 to 8000. We shall select 10 such
figures from the above random numbers which are not less than 3001 and not
greater than 8000. If we randomly decide to read the table numbers from left
to right, starting from the first row itself, we obtain the following numbers:
6641, 3992, 7979, 5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356, and 7483.
 Cont.

Systematic sampling
 Systematic random sampling involves in selecting of K th
sampling unit of the population after first sampling of
unit is selected randomly from the total sampling unit.
 For example, if we wish to select a sample of 100
persons from the population of 10,000, we would take
every 100th individuals (K = N/n). The first selection is
determined by some process such as the use of table of
random digits.
 Cont.

Stratified sampling
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling
technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample.
The following three questions are highly relevant in the
context of stratified sampling:
(a) How to form strata?
(b) How should items be selected from each stratum?
(c) How many items be selected from each stratum or how to
allocate the sample size of each stratum?
 Cont.

The strata be formed on the basis of common

characteristic(s) of the items to be put in each stratum.
This means that various strata be formed in such a way
as to ensure elements being most homogeneous within
each stratum and most heterogeneous between the
different strata.
Simple random sampling mostly used to select a sample
from the strata.
 Cont.

Proportional method of allocation

 To illustrate it, let us suppose that we want a sample of size n =
30 to be drawn from a population of size N = 8000 which is
divided into three strata of size N1 = 4000, N2 = 2400 and N3 =
1600.
N1 = 4000, we have P = 4000/8000 and hence n1 = n . P = 30
(4000/8000) = 15
 Cluster sampling

If the total area of interest happens to be a big one,

a convenient way in which a sample can be taken is
to divide the area into a number of smaller non-
overlapping areas and then to randomly select a
number of these smaller areas (usually called
clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all
(or samples of) units in these small areas or
clusters.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

DATA PROCESSING AND

ANALYSIS
 Data Processing

Technically speaking, processing implies editing,

coding, classification and tabulation of collected data
so that they are amenable to analysis
 PROCESSING OPERATIONS
Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining
the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible.
Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly
entered, as completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
 Cont.

Coding :Coding refers to the process of assigning

numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes
Classification: the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics.
 Cont.

 Classification according to attributes

 Classification according to class-intervals
Tabulation: the process of summarizing raw data
and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the
form of statistical tables) for further analysis.
 Types of Analysis

1. Descriptive analysis:“Descriptive analysis is largely the

study of distributions of one variable. This study provides
us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and
other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as
size, Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.”
2. Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of
significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusions.
 CHAPTER 8
INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to

accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report
writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing
research may get vitiated.
Meaning of Interpretation:
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. The
research would result in certain findings and that findings should
be interpreted to be understood and meaningful with others.
Techniques of interpretation:
The techniques of interpretation involve the following
steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanation of the
relations which he has found and he must interpret the
lines of relationship in terms of the underlying
processes and must try to find out the thread of
uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings. In fact, this is the
technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study,
must be considered while interpreting the final results
of research study, or it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3.It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to
consult some one insight into the study and who is frank and
honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors
in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in
concept interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of
research results.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only
after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to
avoid false generalization.
*N.B. The researcher should take necessary cautions during
interpretations as not to give false generalizations or wrong
interpretation.
 Report writing
Research report is a major component of the research study
because the research task remains incomplete. Research is
done to communicate the findings to others. Otherwise, the
effort made in making research will be of little value unless
they are effectively communicated to users.
Steps in writing report:
The usual steps involve in writing report are:
1. Logical analysis of the subject-matter: It is the first step
which is primarily concerned with the development of a
subject
2. preparation of the final outline, This is the next step in
writing the research report. Outlines are the framework
upon which long written works are constructed.
3. preparation of the rough draft, At this level, the researcher sits
and writes down what he has done in the context of his research
study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him, the broad
findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to
offer regarding the problem concerned.
4.rewriting and polishing, At this step, the researcher continuously amends and polishes his
research work now and again rectifying all errors and problems.
5. preparation of the final bibliography, : Bibliography, which is appended to the research
report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to research which has been done
The entries in the bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
Name of author, last name first.
Title, underlined to indicate italics
Place, publisher, and date of Publication.
Number of volume (if any).
Kotari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House pvt.Ltd., 1978.
Kotler,P., Introduction to Marketing Management, Boston: Mcgraw Hill, 2000.
For magazines and news papers the order may be as under:
Name of the author, last name first,
Title of article, in quotation marks,
Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics,
The volume or volume and number,
The date of issue,
pagination
Robert, V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker, London,
September, 1971, p. 995

6. Writing the final draft.