MODULE -1

ELECTRIC MOTORS (BEE401)

Faculty
Incharge:Mrs.Resna S R
Syllabus
• Module-1
• DC Motors: Construction,Principle of operation Classification
• Back emf, significance of back emf,
• Torque equation
• Characteristics of shunt, series & compound motors.
• Speed control of shunt motor
• Application of motors.
• Losses and Efficiency- Losses in DC motors, power flow
diagram, efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency
• Testing of DC Motors:
– Swinburne’s test Field’s test, merits and demerits of tests.
DC Motor
Construction
 DC Motor
Construction
• Yoke of DC Motor
• The magnetic frame or the yoke of DC motor
made up of cast iron or steel and forms an integral
part of the stator or the static part of the motor.
• Its main function is to form a protective covering
over the sophisticated inner parts of the motor and
provide support to the armature. It also supports
the field system by housing the magnetic poles
and field winding of the DC motor.
DC Motor
Construction
Poles of DC Motor
• The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted onto the inner
wall of the yoke with screws.
• The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts.
• Namely, the pole core and the pole shoe stacked together under
hydraulic pressure and then attached to the yoke.
• These two structures are assigned for different purposes, the pole
core is of small cross-sectional area and its function is to just hold the
pole shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe having a relatively
larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux produced over the air gap
between the stator and rotor to reduce the loss due to reluctance.
• The pole shoe also carries slots for the field windings that produce
the field flux
DC Motor
Construction
• The field winding of DC motor are made with
field coils (copper wire) wound over the slots
of the pole shoes in such a manner that when
field current flows through it, then adjacent
poles have opposite polarity are produced.
• The field winding basically form an
electromagnet, that produces field flux within
which the rotor armature of the DC motor
rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting.
DC Motor
Construction
• Armature Winding of DC Motor

• The armature winding of DC motor is attached to the rotor, or the rotating

part of the machine, and as a result is subjected to altering magnetic field in
the path of its rotation which directly results in magnetic losses.
• For this reason the rotor is made of armature core, that’s made with several
low-hysteresis silicon steel lamination, to reduce the magnetic losses like
hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively.
• These laminated steel sheets are stacked together to form the cylindrical
structure of the armature core.
• The armature core are provided with slots made of the same material as the
core to which the armature winding made with several turns of copper wire
distributed uniformly over the entire periphery of the core.
• The slot openings a shut with fibrous wedges to prevent the conductor from
plying out due to the high centrifugal force produced during the rotation of
the armature, in presence of supply current and field.
DC Motor
Construction
• Commutator of DC Motor
• The commutator of DC motor is a cylindrical
structure made up of copper segments stacked
together, but insulated from each other by mica.
• Its main function as far as the DC motor is
concerned is to commute or relay the supply
current from the mains to the armature winding
housed over a rotating structure through the
brushes of DC motor.
DC Motor
Construction
• Brushes of DC Motor
• The brushes of DC motor are made with carbon or
graphite structures, making sliding contact over the
rotating commutator.
• The brushes are used to relay the current from external
circuit to the rotating commutator form where it flows
into the armature winding.
• So, the commutator and brush unit of the DC motor is
concerned with transmitting the power from the static
electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the
rotor.
 MODULE -1
ELECTRIC MOTORS

Topic: Principle of
operation,Back emf&its
significance,Derivation of Torque
Equation
Faculty Incharge:Mrs.Resna S R
 DC Motor
Principle of Operation
• The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single
statement as ‘when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force’.
• In a practical d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic
field while armature conductors play a role of a current carrying
conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force.
• As conductors are placed in the slots which are on the periphery, the
individual force experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or
turning force on the armature which is called a torque.
• The torque is the product of force and the radius at which this force
acts.
• So overall armature experiences a torque and starts rotating.
• Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in
the Fig.
• The magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but in a
practical d.c. motor it is produced by the field winding when it
carries a current.

• Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a

current in a particular direction.
• Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field
around it, hence this conductor also produces its own flux, around.
• Now there are two fluxes present,
• The flux produced by the permanent magnet called main flux
• The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

• From this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the
fluxes are in the same direction.
• In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the
• As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in
opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other.
• Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened.
• So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right
of the conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the
Fig. 8.2(b).

• This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched

rubber band under tension.
• This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from
high flux density area towards low flux density area, i.e, from left to
right or the case considered as shown in the fig.8.2(b)
• In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced
by a field winding which produces the required flux called
main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the
periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the
mechanical force.
• Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force
called torque and armature of the motor starting rotating.
• The magnetic of the force experienced by the conductor in a
motor is given by
• F = BlI newtons (N)
• B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field
winding
• l = Active length of the conductor
• I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor
• The direction of such force i.e., the direction of rotation of a
motor can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule
• Flemings Left Hand Rule
Back EMF and its significance
• After a motoring action, there exists a generating action.
• There is an induced e.m.f in the rotating armature
conductors according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
• The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V
(Lenz’s law) and in known as back e.m.f or counter e.m.f. denoted
with Eb.
• This is according to the Lenz’s law which states that the direction of
the induced e.m.f. is always so as to oppose the cause producing it. In
a dc. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause and
hence this induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage.
• This e.m.f tries to set up a current through the armature which is in
the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is forcing through
the conductor.
• The back emf Eb(= PΦZN/(60* A) is always less than the applied
voltage V, although this difference is small when the motor is running
• Eb= (ΦZN/60 )P/A
E b = V – I a Ra .
 Significance of Back EMF
• Back emf regulates the flow of armature
current and it automatically alters the armature
current to meet the load requirements.This is
the practical significance of the back emf
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
• The turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque.
• Consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential
force F newtons as shown in the figure.
• Revolution/minute=N speed
• Revolution/60 second=N in r
• P=F*R*2piN/60
• P=T*w
Types of Torque
• The whole of the armature torque is not available for
doing useful work,because a certain percentage of this is
required for supplying iron and friction losses in the
motor.
• The torque required to overcome this loss is called lost
torque
• The torque which is available for doing useful work is
known as Shaft Torque

• Ta=Tf+Tsh
• Net output Power=Tsh*w
• At no load Tsh=0
• Ta=Tf
 MODULE -1
ELECTRIC MOTORS

Topic: Classification of DC
motors
Faculty
Incharge:Mrs.Resna S R
DC Motors: Classification

• A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according

to the connection of the field winding with the
armature.
• Mainly there are two types of DC Motors. One
is Separately Excited DC Motor and other is Self-
excited DC Motor.
• The self-excited motors are further classified
as Shunt wound or shunt motor, Series wound or
series motor and Compound wound or compound
motor.
DC Motors: Classification
Separately Excited DC Motor

• As the name signifies, the field coils or field

windings are energised by a separate DC
source as shown in the circuit diagram shown
below:
Self Excited DC Motor

• As the name implies self-excited, hence, in

this type of motor, the current in the windings
is supplied by the machine or motor itself.
Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into
shunt wound, and series wound motor
• Shunt Wound Motor
• This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field
winding is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in
the figure below:
• Series Wound Motor
• In the series motor, the field winding is connected
in series with the armature winding. The
connection diagram is shown below
• Compound Wound Motor
• A DC Motor having both shunt and series field
windings is called a Compound Motor.
• The connection diagram of the compound motor is
shown below
 MODULE -1
ELECTRIC MOTORS

Topic: 1.Characteristics of DC
Shunt motor
2.Characteristics of DC series
Motor
Faculty Incharge:Mrs.Resna S R
 PREVIOUS CLASS TOPICS
• Principle of operation of DC motor
– when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a
mechanical force’
• Back emf&its significance
– -
– =*
– Back emf regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the
armature current to meet the load requirements. This is the practical significance of
the back emf
• Derivation of Torque Equation
– TaФIaPZ/A
• Classification Of DC motor
– DC Shunt motor
– DC Series motor
– DC Compound Motor
• Long Shunt Compound Motor
Characteristics of Shunt motor
• Relations needed for analyzing the characteristics
are
• TaФIaPZ/A
• -
• * = V-

•
Characteristics of Shunt motor
• Torque-Armature current Characteristics(Ta Vs Ia)
– It is also known as Electrical Characteristics
• Speed –Armature current Characteristics(N Vs Ia)
• Speed –Torque Characteristics(N Vs T)
– It is also known as mechanical characteristics
Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
• In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the
field flux ɸ to be constant.(Ish=V/Rsh),
• Ta α ФIa
• Ta α Ia [ɸ is constant]
• Though at heavy loads, ɸ decreases in a small
amount due to increased armature reaction.
• As we are neglecting the change in the flux ɸ, we
can say that torque is proportional to armature
current.
• Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor
will be a straight line through the origin.
Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

Ta α ФIa
Ta α Ia [ɸ is constant]

• The shaft torque(Tsh) is a smaller amount than armature

torque and is shown in the fig by a dotted line.
• From this curve it is proved that to start a heavy load
very large current is requisite.
• Hence the shunt DC motor should not be started at full
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)
•

• As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say

• N ∝ Eb ∝

• N∝
• As load increases the armature current Ia increases and hence drop
IaRa also increases
• Hence decreases and N (speed)reduces
• But Ra is very small,IaRa drop is very small and hence drop in
speed is also not significant from no load to full load
• So N vs Ia Characteristics is slightly drooping as shown in figure
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

N∝
Speed Vs Torque Characteristics(N -T)

Ta α Ia
N vs Ta charecteristics will be similar to N vs Ia
Characteristics of Series motor
• Torque-Armature current Characteristics(Ta Vs Ia)
– It is also known as Electrical Characteristics
• Speed –Armature current Characteristics(N Vs Ia)
• Speed –Torque Characteristics(N Vs T)
– It is also known as mechanical characteristics
Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
• We know that torque is directly proportional to the product of
armature current and field flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia.
• In DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with the
armature, i.e. Ia = Ise
• flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia.
• ɸ ∝Ia
• Ta α Ia2
• Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.
• After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of
armature current Ia. Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia
only, T ∝ Ia.
• Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight
line.
 Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia
ɸ ∝Ia
Ta α Ia2
• The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to
stray losses.
• Hence, the curve Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower.
• In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases
as the square of armature current, these motors are used where high
starting torque is required
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

• We know the relation,

• N ∝ Eb/ɸ N∝ N∝ N∝
• For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change
in back emf Eb is small and it may be neglected
• ɸ ∝Ia
• N ∝ As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely
proportional to Ia.}
• Therefore, when armature current is very small the speed becomes
dangerously high.
• That is why a series motor should never be started without some
mechanical load.
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

N ∝ Eb/ɸ

N∝ N∝
N∝
Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)
• This characteristic is also called as mechanical
characteristic.
• From the above two characteristics of DC series motor, it
can be found that when speed is high, torque is low and vice
versa.
Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor
• DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding.
• In a compound motor, if series and shunt windings are connected
such that series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then
the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded.
• And if the series flux is opposite to the direction of the shunt
flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded.
Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor
• (a) Cumulative compound motor
• Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics
are required but the load is likely to be removed completely.
• Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt
winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high
speed when the load is suddenly removed.
• These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden
and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills
Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor
(b) Differential compound motor
• Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the
total flux decreases with increase in load.
• Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may
increase slightly with increase in load (N ∝ Eb/ɸ).
• Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but they find
limited applications in experimental and research work.
Characteristics Of DC Motor
Speed Control of Shunt motors
• Flux Control Method
• Armature Voltage Control Method (Rheostatic
control)
• Voltage Control Methods
Flux Control Method
• The speed of a dc motor is inversely proportional to the flux per
pole. N∝
• Thus by decreasing the flux, speed can be increased and vice versa.
• To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field
winding, as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Adding more resistance in series with the field winding will increase
the speed as it decreases the flux.
Flux Control Method
Advantages of Flux Control Method
• 1. It provides relatively smooth and easy control.
• 2. Speed control above rated speed is possible.
• 3. As the field winding resistance is high, the field current is small.
Hence power loss (R) in the external resistance is very small, which
makes the method more economical and efficient.
• 4. As the field current is small, the size of rheostat required is small.
Disadvantages of Flux Control Method
• 1. The speed control below normal rated speed is not possible as
flux can be increased only upto its rated value.
• 2. As flux reduces, speed increases. But high speed affects the
commutation making motor operation unstable. So there is limit to
the maximum speed above normal, possible by this method.
Armature Control Method
N∝

• R-increases, Ia(Ra+R) increases, V-Ia(Ra+R) decreases, N decreases

• Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf E b and Eb = V -
IaRa.
• That means, when supply voltage V and the armature resistance R a are kept
constant, then the speed is directly proportional to armature current I a.
• Thus, if we add resistance in series with the armature, I a decreases and, hence,
the speed also decreases.
• Greater the resistance in series with the armature, greater the decrease in
speed.
Armature Control Method
Advantages of Rheostat Control
• Easy and smooth speed control below normal is possible.
• In potential divider arrangement, rheostat can be used as a starter.
Disadvantages of Rheostat Control
• As the entire armature current passes through the external
resistance, there are tremendous power losses.
• As armature current is more than field current, rheostat required
is of large size and capacity.
• Speed above rated is not possible by this method
• Due to large power losses, the method is expensive, wasteful and
less efficient.
• The method needs expensive heat dissipation arrangements.
Voltage Control Method

• Multiple voltage control:

• In this method, the shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting

voltage and armature is supplied with different voltages.
• Voltage across armature is changed with the help of suitable
switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage
 Voltage Control Method
Advantages of Applied Voltage Control
• 1. Gives wide range of speed control.
• 2. Speed control in both directions can be achieved
very easily.
• 3. Uniform acceleration can be obtained.
• Disadvantages of Applied Voltage Control
• 1. Arrangement is expensive as provision of various
auxiliary equipments is necessary.
• 2. Overall efficiency is low.
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
• Applications of Shunt DC Motors
• Shunt Motors are normally used for constant speed
applications such as followings
• Lathe Machines
• Fans and Blowers
• Reciprocating Pumps
• Printing machines
• Wood working machines
• Centrifugal pumps
 APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
• Applications of DC Series Motors
• DC series motors are much suitable for
applications which require high starting torque
and variable speed applications. Following are
some several applications of DC series motors.
• Electrical Cranes
• Trolley Cars
• Conveyors Belt Drives
• Electric locomotives
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
• Application of Compound DC Motors
• DC compound motors are much suitable for places where
need higher starting torque on the constant speed. The
applications of DC Compound motors are as following.
• Electrical Elevators
• Conveyor Belt Drive
• Heavy Planes
• Rolling Mills
• Punches
• Shears
 LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• The losses that occur in a DC Machine is
divided into five basic categories. The various
losses are Electrical or Copper losses (I2R
losses),Core
losses or Iron losses, Brush losses, Mechanic
al losses, Stray load losses
LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
LOSSES IN DC MACHINE
• Electrical or Copper Losses in dc machine
• These losses are also known as winding losses as the copper loss occurs because of
the resistance of the windings.
• The ohmic loss is produced by the current flowing in the windings.
• The windings that are present in addition to the armature windings are the field
windings, interpoles and compensating windings.
• Armature copper losses = I a2Ra where Ia is armature current, and Ra is the armature
resistance.
• These losses are about 30 per cent of the total full load losses.
• In shunt machine, the copper loss in the shunt field is I 2shRsh, where Ish is the current
in the shunt field, and Rsh is the resistance of the shunt field windings. The shunt
regulating resistance is included in R sh.
• In a series machine, the copper loss in the series windings is I 2seRse, where, Ise is the
current through the series field windings, and R se is the resistance of the series field
windings.
LOSSES IN DC MACHINE
• In a Compound machine, both the shunt and
the series field losses occur. These losses are
almost 20 per cent of the full load losses.
• Copper losses in the interpole windings are
written as Ia2Ri where Ri is the resistance of the
interpole windings.
• Copper loss in the compensating windings if
any is Ia2Rc where Rc is the resistance of
compensating windings.
LOSSES IN DC MACHINE
• Magnetic Losses or Core Losses or Iron
Losses in dc machine
• The core losses are the hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
• These losses are considered almost constant as
the machines are usually operated at constant
flux density and constant speed.
• These losses are about 20 per cent of the full
load losses.
LOSSES IN DC MACHINE
• Brush Losses in dc machine
• Brush losses are the losses taking place between
the commutator and the carbon brushes.
• It is the power loss at the brush contact point.
The brush drop depends upon the brush contact
voltage drop and the armature current Ia.
• It is given by the equation shown below:
LOSSES IN DC MACHINE
• Mechanical Losses in dc machine
• The losses that take place because of the mechanical effects of the machines are
known as mechanical losses. Mechanical losses are divided into bearing friction
loss and windage loss. The losses occurring in the moving parts of the machine
and the air present in the machine is known as Windage losses. These losses are
very small.

• Stray Losses in dc machine

• These losses are the miscellaneous type of losses. The following factors are
considered in stray load losses.
• The distortion of flux because of the armature reaction.
• Short circuit currents in the coil, undergoing commutation.
• These losses are very difficult to determine. Therefore, it is necessary to assign
the reasonable value of the stray loss. For most machines, stray losses are taken
by convention to be one per cent of the full load output power.
POWER FLOW DIAGRAM
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CONDITION IN DC MOTOR

• Learn from class notes

Testing of Machines
• Testing of machines is used for finding Losses,
Temperature rise and Efficiency.
• The efficiency of a d.c. machine depends on
its losses. When losses are decrease, The efficiency is
increase and it is vice-versa.
• The efficiency of a d.c. motor is given by
SWIN BURN’S TEST(No load Test)

• This is indirect method of testing d.c. motors in which flux remains

practically constant i.e. specially in case of shunt and compound
motors.
• Without actually loading the motor the losses and hence efficiency at
different loads can be found out.
• The motor is run on no load at its rated voltage.
• At the starting some resistance is connected in series with the
armature which is cut when motor attains sufficient speed.
• Now the speed of the motor is adjusted to the rated speed with the
 Now if we want to find the efficiency of the motor at say 1/4 th full
load. It can be calculated as follows,
Let IF.L. = Full load current of motor( 12 A) x=1/4
WF = Field copper loss
W = Stray losses
Load current at 1/4 th full load = IF.L./4 (12/4=3A)
Motor input at 1/4 th full load = V x ( IF.L./4) watts.=220*3=660w
Armature current at 1/4 th full load, I'a = ( IF.L./4) - I'sh
• Advantages of Swinburne’s Test
• The main advantages of this test are:
– This test is very convenient and economical as it is
required very less power from supply to perform the test.
– Since constant losses are known, efficiency
of Swinburne’s test can be pre-determined at any load.
• Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test
• The main disadvantages of this test are :
– Iron loss is neglected though there is change in iron loss
from no load to full load due to armature reaction.
– We can’t measure the temperature rise when the machine
is loaded. Power losses can vary with the temperature.
– In DC series motors, the Swinburne’s test cannot be done
to find its efficiency as it is a no load test.
FIELD TEST ON DC MACHINES
The two machines are coupled mechanically in which one
runs as a motor and the other as a generator driven by the
motor.
The electrical output from the generator is passed through
variable load resistance R and dissipated as heat.
The resistance R is changed until the current taken by the
motor reaches full load value.
This will be indicated by ammeter A1.The other readings are
• Supply voltage = reading of voltmeter, V = V1 volts
• Motor input current = reading of ammeter, A1 = I1
• Terminal voltage of generator = readings of voltmeter, V2 = V2
• Loading current of generator = reading of ammeter, A2 = I2
• Armature resistance of each machine = Ra
• Series field of each machine = Rse
• Input to the whole set = V I1
• Output of the whole set = V2 I2
• Total losses of the set = Wt = V I1 - V2 I2
• Series field and armature copper loss of motor = (Ra + Rse) I12
• Series field and armature copper loss of generator = I22 Ra + I12 Rse
• Total copper losses of the set,
• Wcu = I12 Ra + I12 Rse + I22 Ra + I12 Rse
• Wcu = I 1
2
(R a + 2R se ) + I 2 Ra
2

• Stray losses for the set = WT - Wcu

• Stray losses for each machine = (WT - Wcu) / 2 =Ws

• Efficiency of motor=Output power /Input power
• =(Input power-losses/Input power)=V1*I1-I12 Ra + I12 Rse +Ws

• Input power of motor=V1*I1

2 2
Motor Efficiency :
• Motor input = V1 I1
• Motor losses = I12 (Ra + Rse) + Ws
• Motor output = V1 I1 - [ I12 (Ra + Rse) + Ws ]
• Generator
• Efficiency=Output/Input
• =Output/(Output+losses)

• Output power=V2*I2
• Losses=I22 Ra + I12 Rse +Ws
• Efficiency=V2*I2/(V2*I2+ I22 Ra + I12 Rse
+Ws)
• Generator Efficiency :
• Generator Output = V2 I2
• Generator losses = I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws
• Generator Input = V2 I2 + I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws
• Therefore, the efficiency of generator is,